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{|width="100%" rifle trenches or pits. In these the trench at bottom is 5 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep; the earth is thrown forward far enough to allow the natural surface of the ground to act as a banquette, the embankment being 4 ft. 6 in. high. These expedients have entered largely into the operations of recent wars, but in no country and at no time have they been used with greater success or more generally than in the late civil war in the United States. Whenever an army halted in the presence of the enemy they immediately began to intrench themselves, before eating or resting. The difficulty was to get them to wait until a proper line was selected. This custom has not been confined to modern times. The Roman legions intrenched their camp every night, and remains of many of their intrenched camps are yet to be seen.—The use of field works runs back to the remotest antiquity, and has ever played a most important part in the operations of war. Prominent examples are Frederick the Great's camp at Bunzelwitz, Wellington's lines at Torres Vedras, the French lines at Weissenburg, the Austrian intrenchments in front of Vienna in 1848, and the lines of field works around Vicksburg, Nashville, Petersburg, Richmond, and, most prominent of all, the city of Washington. For the offensive works used in siege operations, see .—There are numerous works on fortification, but full information may be obtained from those of Prof. D. H. Mahan, “Military Engineering: Part I., Field Fortifications, &c.; Part II., Permanent Fortifications” (2 vols. 8vo., New York, 1865-'7), and Gen. A. von Zastrow, Geschichte der beständigen Befestigung (8vo, Leipsic, 1854; translated into French, Histoire de la fortification permanente, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1856).  FORT JACKSON. See.  FORT MADISON, a city and the capital of Lee co., Iowa, on the Mississippi river, 12 m. above the lower rapids, and 17 m. S. W. of Burlington, on the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy, and the Burlington and Southwestern railroads; pop. in 1850, 1,509; in 1860, 2,886; in 1870, 4,011. It is built on ground rising gradually from the river. The houses are for the most part of brick, and are surrounded by grounds tastefully arranged, and shaded by ornamental trees. The city is the site of the Iowa state prison, a limestone structure containing 318 cells, and furnished with extensive workshops. The number of convicts in 1873 was 264. The court house and county jail are substantial structures. The river is crossed by ferries. Fort Madison is a place of considerable trade, and its manufactures are important, including hardware and machinery, lumber, flour, brick, woollens, wine, &c. There are five hotels, four public halls, a public library, a theatre, and a national bank. The Fort Madison academy has an average attendance of 100 pupils. The city contains five public schools,
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 * } being further strengthened form what we call

two weekly newspapers, and nine churches.—Fort Madison was first settled in 1832, and was incorporated as a town in 1836. It derives its name from a fort erected in 1808, and named in honor of James Madison.  FORT ROYAL, or Fort de France, a seaport of the French West Indies, capital of Martinique, situated on a deep and well sheltered bay on the W. side of the island; pop. about 12,000. It is defended by a fort which commands both the town and the harbor, is the residence of the French governor and of a bishop, and contains, besides the parish church and government offices, a prison, hospital barracks, and an arsenal. The streets are straight and spacious, and the houses in general well built. The town was founded in 1672. In 1839 it was almost wholly destroyed by an earthquake, in which more than 500 lives were lost.  FORT ST. DAVID, a town of India, on the Coromandel coast, in South Arcot, 3 m. N. of Cuddalore, and 12 m. S. S. W. of Pondicherry. It was formerly well fortified. The town was called Tegnapatam till 1691, when it was purchased by the East India company. It withstood a siege by the French in 1746, and from that period remained for 12 years the capital of the British possessions in this part of India. In 1758 the French under Lally besieged it again, captured it after a short resistance, and destroyed its fortifications. It is now in ruins.  FORT SCOTT, a city and the capital of Bourbon co., Kansas, on the Marmiton river, a branch of the Osage, about 100 m. S. of Leavenworth; pop. in 1860, 262; in 1870, 4,174. The Missouri River, Fort Scott, and Gulf, and the Missouri, Kansas, and Texas railroads intersect here. Bituminous coal is abundant in the surrounding country. Manufacturing industry is little developed, but there are three flouring mills, a planing mill and furniture factory, carriage and wagon factories, cement works, founding and machine shops, a castor oil factory, cement pipe works, and a barrel factory, employing in the aggregate 144 men. Two national banks have been established, with a capital of $150,000. The city contains five public school buildings, one of which cost $60,000, and has a normal department. One daily and two weekly newspapers are published. There are nine religious societies. Fort Scott was established as a military post in 1842, and was incorporated as a town in 1855.  FORT SMITH, a city of Sebastian co., Arkansas, on the right bank of the Arkansas river, at the head of steamboat navigation, about 130 m. W. N. W. of Little Rock, and near the boundary of the Indian territory; pop. in 1860, 1,532; in 1870, 2,227, of whom 536 were colored; in 1873, 3,500. The situation is beautiful, and commands an extensive view of the Arkansas, the land, interspersed with hills and dales, rising gradually from the river. The business portion of the city is mostly built of brick and stone. The outskirts are lined with gardens, amid which are handsome residences.