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 ENGLAND 617 lii I an 5 to retain Canada, whereby the English North American colonies were freed from any fear of French attacks, and any feelings of inde- pendence which they might have would be increased. Those colonies, however, would probably have been long in maturing the wish for separation from the parent country had they been well governed. With the exception of a few thoughtful men, the colonists were sincerely attached to the home government. The attempt of that government to tax them caused great indignation, and led to the Ameri- can revolution. The English in the last years of the war had to fight the Americans, the French, the Spaniards, and the Dutch. The peace of 1783 left England in a low condition. She had been fortunate only in the East, where the ability and unscrupulousness of Warren Hastings increased her power. Shortly after the conclusion of the war George III. became popular, and saw the party which he hated excluded from office. The new phase of tory- ism which manifested itself under the rule of the younger Pitt became the ascendant politi- cal principle of England for more than 40 years. When the French revolution broke out, the English ministry reluctantly engaged in the war that soon followed. A portion of the aristocratic whigs, headed by Burke, were more anxious for war than were Pitt and his immediate followers. The war lasted, with two brief intervals, down to the summer of 1815, ending in the complete triumph of Eng- land and her allies. The exertions made by England were vast. Her fleets, led by Nelson, Jervis, Howe, and Duncan, achieved splendid victories over the French and Spaniards, and in the last years of the war her armies were greatly distinguished under the lead of Wel- lington and others. In 1810 George III. lost " is reason finally, and for more than nine ears his eldest son, afterward George IV., as prince regent, succeeding to the throne in 820. In 1812 England became involved in a ar with the United States, growing out of the impressment and right of search questions. The contest was terminated by the treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. The colonial and In- dian dominions were much extended during " e contest with France. On the other hand, ngland found herself burdened with a debt of 4,000,000,000, and her expenditures had been on the most gigantic scale. After the restora- tion of peace in 1815, England entered upon a career of reform which has been more or less steadily followed ever since. This reform at first related to commercial and legal matters, but soon reached to others more peculiarly political. The passage of the Catholic emanci- pation act in 1829, under direction of a min- istry headed by Wellington and Peel, showed that religious bigotry was no longer to receive the direct countenance of government; and the proceeding was but the fulfilment of the spirit of the treaty by which Ireland had been united to Great Britain in 1801, and, her own parliament being abolished, allowed to send members to the imperial parliament. George IV., who had begun life as a liberal in politics, opposed this act, but was compelled to yield to the pressure brought to bear upon him by the tory chiefs. Pie died the next year, 1830, and, having no legitimate children, was suc- ceeded by his brother the duke of Clarence as William IV., whose short reign was a time of more political agitation than had been known since the revolution. Immediately after he became king happened the French revolution of July, 1830, which was followed by out- breaks in other parts of Europe, especially in Belgium and Poland. England felt these movements, and sympathized with the popular parties of the continent. In March, 1831, a bill for parliamentary reform was introduced into the house of commons by Lord John Rus- sell, and after long debates in parliament and intense excitement in the country, caused by the opposition of the house of lords, a bill making extensive changes in the constitution of the house of commons finally passed in June, 1832, under the ministry of Earl Grey. The first reformed parliament, which met Jan. 29, 1833, contained an overwhelming majority of reformers. The dominant party, however, was too strong, and fell from its own weight. Irish troubles led to dissensions, and Lord Grey retired from office in 1834. He was succeeded by Lord Melbourne. Toward the close of the year Lord Althorp, chancellor of the exche- quer, was obliged to vacate his office in conse- quence of his accession to the peerage as Earl Spencer. The king, who had been watching for an opportunity to get rid of the whigs, took this occasion to dismiss the ministry. The government was committed to Sir Robert Peel, who formed a conservative ministry, and made a bold effort to retain power, though it is not probable he would have advised the king to the step he had taken in dismissing the Mel- bourne ministry, for there were not 200 men in the commons who would have preferred the conservatives to the whigs. Parliament was dissolved, and in the elections which followed the conservatives gained largely ; but the re- formers had a majority, so that, though 35 reformers voted for the Peel candidate for speaker of the house of commons, he was beaten by a majority of 10. Peel continued in office until April 8, 1835, when he retired, having been repeatedly beaten on Irish church questions. His ministry had only lasted four months. Lord Melbourne returned to office, with many of his old colleagues. The king found himself forced to submit to the whigs ; but it is said he was prepared to do something against them when he was seized with the ill- ness which proved fatal to him, June 20, 1837. He was succeeded by his niece Victoria, the only child of Edward, duke of Kent, fourth son of George III. This event led to the sepa- ration of the crowns of England and Hanover, which had been worn by the same persons