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 CRUSADES 531 that country, and in 1244 stormed Jerusalem, perpetrating horrors equal to those which had marked its Christian conquest in 1099. Chris- tians and Mussulmans were compelled to league against them, but were crushed by the savages and their Egyptian allies. Acre became the refuge of the remnants of the Christians, and was the only place of importance left to the cross. The Kharizmians were soon destroyed or expelled by the Egyptians themselves, who now held Jerusalem. These events had the usual eifect on Europe. At the council of Lyons (1245), a seventh crusade was pro- claimed. It was chiefly confined to France and England ; for though the king of Norway took the cross, he never drew his sword in its cause, and Germany and Italy were not in a state to afford assistance. Louis IX. of France, known as St. Louis, was the leader. A large army was assembled at Cyprus in 1248, and after a long delay proceeded to Egypt. The English joined it there. Damietta was taken (1249), and the crusaders directed their steps to Cairo. Mansoora fell before them, but the rash behavior of some of the French leaders caused them to pay dearly for the victory. The Egyp- tians resisted bravely and skilfully. Commu- nication between the invaders and Damietta, the base of their operations, was cut off, and they were shut up in their camp, where sick- ness and famine thinned their number. At- tempting to retreat, they were utterly routed, and the king and his brothers, with many nobles and knights, became captives (1250). The rest of the army were slaughtered, 30,000 falling in. all. The king and his companions were finally released, but not until they had experienced many dangers. Damietta was given up, and large sums were promised to the victors. Most of the survivors regarded the crusade as at an end, and departed from a land which had re- ceived them so roughly. Not so Louis, who went to Acre, and determined to remain in Palestine. This resolution he maintained for four years, exerting himself strenuously for the Christian cause, fortifying several places, and preserving union. Compelled by the condi- tion of France to return home in 1254, his departure was followed by dissensions. The templars and hospitallers made open war on each other. The Egyptians, having extended their power over the Syrian Mussulmans, now fell on the Christians. The war lasted for years, and was characterized by constant Christian reverses, in spite of the valor of the losing party. At length the Latin principality of Antioch fell in 1268, myriads of Christians being slain, or sold into slavery. Nothing was left but Acre. For the last time Europe was moved to serious exertion, and the eighth crusade was undertaken. Louis IX., undis- couraged by his Egyptian failure, assembled a large force, which sailed in 1270. He landed in northern Africa, near Tunis, influenced by a false report of the dey's conversion to Chris- tianity, and the hope of securing him as an ally. He met witk no firm resistance in the field, but the light troops of the Moors harassed the French exceedingly. Sickness raged in the in- vading ranks, and after crowds of brave sol- diers and illustrious nobles had fallen, the king himself died. The French immediately gave up the crusade ; but they had been joined by a band of English auxiliaries, headed by Prince Edward, afterward King Edward I., and these resolved to proceed to Palestine. Spending the winter in Sicily, they sailed for Acre in the spring of 1271, the last expedition of the kind that ever reached that place. The force was only 1,000 strong, but the name of Plantagenet was great in the East. Sultan Bibars, who had been so successful over the Christians, immediately retreated. Edward managed to assemble 7,000 men, and defeated a large Mussulman army, and then stormed Nazareth, which became the scene of a sweep- ing massacre. Here he was struck down by disease, and his followers died in great nun> bers. His life was attempted by an assassin. On his recovery, seeing that success could not be looked for, he concluded a truce of ten years, and departed for his own country (1272) ; and so ended the last crusade, 177 years from the time the first had been preached. Gregory X. sought to evoke a ninth, but with no suc- cess. In 1289 Tripoli, on the Phoenician coast, the last fief of the kingdom of Jerusalem, was taken by Sultan Kelaun. The remnants of that kingdom fell into his hands without resist- ance, save Acre, which he besieged at the head of an overwhelming force. The greater part of the inhabitants withdrew, but the soldiers of the three military orders, and some others, defended it resolutely to the last. The city was stormed (May 18, 1291), and the defenders mas- sacred, or sold into slavery ; 60,000 are said to have been killed or taken, probably an exag- geration. The most important works treating specially of the crusades are : Gesta Dei per Francos, sine Orientalium Expeditionum et Regni Francorum Hierosolymitani Historia, edited by Jacques Bongars (2 vols. fol., Han- over, 1611), a collection of the ancient histories of the crusades, the principal of which are also found, translated into French, in Guizot's Col- lection des memoires relatifs a Vhistoire de France ; Mailly, IS Esprit des croisades (Paris, 1780) ; Choiseul-Daillecourt, De V influence des croisades sur Vetat des peuples en Europe (Paris, 1810) ; Michaud, Histoire des croisades (Paris, 1812-'22) ; Heeren, Ueber den Einflws der Kreuzzuge (Gottingen, 1803) ; Wilken, Geschichte der Kreuzzuge (Leipsic, 1807-'32) ; Haken, Gemdlde der Kreuzzage (Frankfort, 1808-'20); Sporschill, GescUchte der Kreuz- zuge (Leipsic, 1843 et seq.) ; Navarrete, Di- sertacion Mstorica sobre la parte que tuvieron los EspaHoles en las guerras de ultramaro o de las cruzadas (Madrid, 1816); Hallam's " View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages" (1818); Mills'* "History of the Cru- sades" (London, 1819); G. P. R. James,