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 CRONSTADT CROSS 511 the hulls of new ones"*being brought over for equipment from St. Petersburg ; and the inner- most harbor, running parallel with the prece- ding, used only by merchantmen, and sufficient for 1,000 sail at a time. All these are well se- cured, but in consequence of the freshness of the water from the proximity of the mouth of the Neva, vessels cannot be preserved in them longer than 20 years. From November to the end of April they are blocked by ice. Not- withstanding the shortness of the shipping sea- son and the shallowness of the bay, which at the bar is only 9 ft. deep, two thirds of the foreign trade of Russia passes through this port. The entrances of vessels, which in 1714 were 16, now amount to about 3,500 a year. In summer the surrounding sea is enlivened by steamers regularly running between Oronstadt Stettin, Lubeck, Havre, &c. Cronstadt was inundated in 1824, and blockaded in 1854 by the British fleet under Napier. CRONSTADT, Transylvania. See KEONSTADT. CROOKS, George Richard, D. D., an American clergyman, author, and editor, born in Phila- delphia, Feb. 3,1822. He graduated at Dickin- son college in 1840, entered the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal church in 1841, and went to labor as a pioneer in Illinois, but was re- called to Dickinson college, where he spent seven years as tutor, principal in the prepara- tory school, and adjunct professor of Latin and Greek. In 1848 he resumed the pastoral of- fice, and was stationed successively at Phila- delphia, Wilmington, Del., New York, and Brooklyn. In 1860 he became editor of " The Methodist " newspaper, in New York. He has prepared, in conjunction with Dr. McClin- tock, a series of "First Books" in Latin and Greek (1846-'7) ; supervised an edition of But- ler's "Analogy," for which he furnished an analysis, index, and biography (1852) ; and, in conjunction with Prof. A. J. Schem, published a "Latin-English School Lexicon" (1858). CROPSEY, Jasper Frank, an American artist, born at Westfield, Richmond co., N. Y., Feb. 18, 1823. About the age of 14 he commenced the study of architecture, which at the end of five years he was obliged to relinquish on account of ill health. Having received a few lessons in water colors, he devoted himself thenceforth to landscape painting, and his third picture, a view of Greenwood lake in New Jersey, procured his election as an asso- ciate of the American academy of design, of which in 1850 he became a full member. In 1847 he went to Europe, where he spent three years, mostly in Italy, painting " The Pontine Marshes" and "Lake Nemi." Among his most successful productions after his return to America were " The Sibyl's Temple," "American Harvesting," " Peace " and "War," and "Niagara Falls." In June, 1856, he went to England, where he resided seven years, and painted many pictures, among which are " The Backwoods of America," "Paestum," "Gorfe 238 VOL. v. 33 Castle," "Autumn on the Hudson River," " Richmond Hill," and " Warwick Castle." He returned to America in 1863. CROSBY, Howard, D. D., an American clergy- man, born in New York, Feb. 27, 1826. He graduated at the university of New York in 1844, and was professor of Greek in that in- stitution from 1851 to 1859, when he resigned to take the Greek professorship in Rutgers college, New Brunswick, N. J. In 1859 he received the degree of D. D. from Harvard university, and in 1872 that of LL. D. from Columbia college. In 1861 he was ordained, and in addition to his professorship became pastor of the first Presbyterian church in New Brunswick. In 1863 he resigned both places to assume the pastorate of the Fourth avenue Presbyterian church in New York ; and in 1870 he was chosen chancellor of the university of the city of New York. Besides numerous ser- mons, addresses, and contributions to theologi- cal periodicals, he has edited the (Edipus Ty- rannus of Sophocles (1851), and is author of "Lands of the Moslem" (1850), "Notes on the New Testament" (1861), "Social Hints for Young Christians " (1866), " Bible Manual " (1869), "Jesus, his Life and Works as narrated by the Four Evangelists " (1870), " The Healthy Christian" (1872), and "Thoughts on the Decalogue " (1873). CROSLAND, Mrs. Newton, better known by her maiden name of CAMILLA TOTTLMIN, an English authoress, born in London, June 9, 1812. She first appeared in print in 1838 as the author of a short poem in the " Book of Beauty," soon after which she became an active con- tributor to periodicals, and edited for several years the "Ladies' Companion and Monthly Magazine." In 1848 she married Mr. Newton Crosland, a merchant and literary man of Lon- don. Her principal works are : a volume of poems, "Lays and Legends illustrative of Eng- lish Life;" "Partners for Life, a Christmas Story;" "Stratagems, a Tale for Young Peo- ple ;" " Toil and Trial, a Tale of London Life ;" "Lydia, a Woman's Book;" "Stray Leaves from Shady Places;" "Memorable Women;" " Hildred the Daughter ;" " Mrs. Blake " (1862) ; and "The Island of the Rainbow," a fairy tale (1865). In 1854 she became interested in the subject of spiritualism, and in 1857 published " Light in the Valley : my Experiences in Spir- itualism." She has also written many songs. CROSS (Lat. crux ; Fr. croix), a sacred symbol in the Christian and more ancient religions. While the use of the cross as an ornament or as a religious emblem is traced to a remote antiquity, its employment as an instrument of punishment is scarcely less ancient ; but until the time of Christianity there was no known connection between the two. The many varied shapes in which it appears may be resolved into four simple forms. The cross of four equal arms meeting at right angles, --, commonly called the Greek cross, is found
 * and St. Petersburg, Helsingfors, Stockholm,