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 CRACOW 453 manuscripts, a cabinet of natural history, a bo- tanical garden, and an observatory belong to it. Cracow has also a polytechnic academy, with 24 professors and 378 students in 1871, two gymnasia, and a number of other in- stitutions for public education, arts, sciences, and benevolence. In the vicinity of the city, the hill of Wanda, which commemo- rates the patriotic suicide of the daughter of Krakus, the Bronislawa (glory of arms), with a mound 150 ft. high erected in memory of Kosciuszko, and Lobzow, a summer residence built by Casimir the Great, attract the atten- tion of travellers and patriots. The commerce of Cracow, though greatly decreased since the fall of independent Poland, and especially since the annexation to Austria, is consider- able. It is still a centre of trade between Russian Poland, Galicia, and Hungary, and a chief depot for Hungarian wines, salt, and wax. The celebrated salt mines of Wieliczka are a few miles distant. Railway lines connect the city with Warsaw, Berlin, Vienna, Lemberg, and Pesth. The foundation of Cracow is aV tributed by the legends of Poland to Krakus, a Slavic chief, who is supposed to have lived about the year 700. Under Ladislas Lokietek (the Short), who was crowned here in 1320, it took the place of Gnesen as capital of Poland. This dignity it maintained down to the reign of Sigismund III., who in 1609 transferred the seat of government to Warsaw. The kings of Poland, however, still continued to be crowned in the cathedral of Cracow. It was conquered in 1039 by the Bohemians, in 1241 by the Tartars, in 1655 by the Swedes under Charles X., in 1702 by Charles XII., and in 1768, after having for some time supported the cause of the confederation of Bar, by the Rus- sians. After the fall of Kosciuszko, who made Cracow the starting point of his revolution, it was on the last partition of Poland (1795) ta- ken by Austria. In 1809 it was annexed, to- gether with western Galicia, to the duchy of Palace at Cracow. Warsaw, which had been created two years be- fore by Napoleon. After the fall of Napoleon it was erected by the congress of Vienna, together with a small but fertile territory of about 500 sq. m. on the left bank of the Vistula, bounded by Russian Poland, Galicia, and Prussian Si- lesia, into an independent and neutral republic, under the protection of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. This miniature state, the last remnant of Polish independence, had a representative assembly, which held sessions in the last month of every year, and an executive senate headed by a president, who was elected for three years by the assembly, and confirmed by the pro- tecting states. It contained about 150,000 in- habitants, of whom more than one tenth were Jews. The latter enjoyed no civil rights, and were besides subject to many humiliating medi- aeval restrictions. Grain, excellent fruits, cat- tle, coal, iron, and sulphur, and the reviving commerce of Cracow, were the chief sources of wealth. During the Polish revolution of 1830- '31, Cracow was under the influence of the national party, and many of its inhabitants fought in the ranks of the Polish armies. Hav- ing become a place of refuge to a small part of the corps of Rozycki toward the close of the war, it was occupied by the Russian gen- eral Rudiger. The republic was now purged by the three protecting powers of all revolu- tionary elements, and finally reorganized in 1833. But new national agitations brought about another military occupation in 1836, this time executed by troops of all the three powers. This was followed by the expulsion of more than 500 persons, who were escorted to Trieste, to be transported to America. Scarcely had the troops retired when new conspiracies served in 1838 as a reason for a fresh occupation by the Austrians, which lasted till 1841. The revolutionary outbreak of Feb- ruary, 1846, which was prepared by a con- spiracy for simultaneous action in all the prov- inces of ancient Poland, was for a moment successful in Cracow alone. The Austrians, who had again occupied the city, were driven beyond the Vistula, the restoration of Poland as a democratic republic was proclaimed, and