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 CONFESSION CONFIRMATION 233 armies is in a good degree supplied by the " Report of the Joint Committee of Congress on the Conduct of the War." This embraces the sworn testimony of a very large propor- tion of the officers who bore a prominent part in military operations. The confederate " Report of the Operations of the Army of Northern Virginia" (3 vols. 8vo), embracing the period from the beginning of the seven days' battles down to the battle of Chancel- lors ville, is remarkably full and complete. Be- sides the general report of Lee, and detailed reports from each division commander, there are nearly 400 from subordinate officers. For all other periods the accessible confederate reports are nearly worthless. Of special re- ports, that of McClellan on the " Organization and Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac," and that of Pope describing the operations of the army of Virginia, are valuable. A mono- graph by Hotchkiss and Allan, confederate en- gineers, relating to the battle of Chancellors- ville, is of great value on account of its accu- rate military maps of the region of the " Wilder- ness." Among the general histories of the war are to be noted those of Horace Greeley, "The American Conflict" (2 vols. 8vo, 1866); John W. Draper, " History of the Ameri- can Civil War " (3 vols. 8vo, 1868-'TO) ; A. H. Guernsey and H. M. Alden, " Harper's Pictorial History of the Great Rebellion " (4to) ; Edward A. Pollard, " The Lost Cause : a new South- ern History of the War of the Confederates " (1866); Alexander H. Stephens, "The War between the States " (2 vols. 8vo, 1868-'70) ; and William Swinton, "Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac" (1866), and "The Twelve Decisive Battles of the War" (1871). CONFESSION, Anrienlar, in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, the acknowledg- ment of sins to an authorized priest, made with the view of obtaining absolution. According to the doctrine of the Catholic church, con- fession is obligatory on all who have com- mitted mortal sin after baptism. The confes- sion of venial sins is recommended as salutary, and generally practised by the more devout. Catholic theology teaches that the requisites to a good confession are, that it should be entire, conjoined with sincere contrition and a firm purpose of amendment, and followed by acts of penance or satisfaction to the justice of God. By a canon of the fourth council of the Lateran (1215), which is a formal reenactment of a general law previously existing, all who are conscious of mortal sin are bound to confess at least once a year. Those who are in danger of death, or about to expose themselves to the danger of death, are similarly bound. Much more frequent confession is recommended, and very generally practised. No priest can hear confessions or give a valid absolution, except to a person in danger of death, unless he has jurisdiction from the ordinary of the diocese, and such jurisdiction is more or less limited by reservations to the bishop or the sovereign pontiff. A priest is forbidden, under the severest ecclesiastical penalties, to divulge any- thing disclosed under the seal of confession, even when questioned in a court of justice ; and he may not even speak to the penitent of the sins he has confessed, outside of the confessional, without his express permission. According to Catholic theology, auricular or private confession has been practised from the time of the apostles, although there has been a change of discipline since the early ages, adopted by the church on account of a change of circumstances. Public confession was practised in these early times, and very severe and long penances were im- posed on those who were guilty of grievous public sins. After the fervor of the first ages had diminished, and sins had become more frequent, these public confessions were an oc- casion of scandal, and the severe penitential canons were injurious rather than profitable. Nectarius, patriarch of Constantinople, abol- ished the office of public penitentiary in his cathedral at the close of the 4th century, and from that time public confession fell into disuse in the East. In the West it was disused after the 7th century. Public confession was never required except when the sins were public, and the public confession of secret sins was only counselled in certain cases, as a penance. Many sins, especially under the severe laws of Christian emperors, could not have been pub- licly confessed without exposing the criminal to the penalty of death ; as for instance, murder, the adultery of a woman, and that of a man with a woman of noble birth. Secret sins were first privately confessed to a priest, and if the penitent desired to confess them publicly, the confessor judged whether this were expedient. Auricular confession is rec- ommended by some divines in the Anglican and Lutheran churches as a salutary practice, and even by the prayer book of the church of England. For information on private confes- sion in the church of England, see Visitatio Infirmorum, by W. H. Cope and H. Stretton (London, 1850). For the Catholic literature and theology on confession, see Renaudot'a Perpetuite de lafoi sur les increments. CONFIRMATION, in some churches a sacra- ment, in others a rite supplemental to baptism. Its history is traced to the apostles (Acts viii. and xix., Eph. xix., &c.), who were wont to lay hands on neophytes and to pray in order that they might receive the Holy Ghost. In the succeeding ages, to " the imposition of hands " is found added the " chrismation," or anointing of the forehead with chrism. The entire rite came to be designated as " the sacrament of chrisin," "the receiving of the cross," the "sign of the Lord," "the seal," and "the signing or sealing," consignatio. Hence the recipients were called comignati, " signed ;" and the place in or near the baptistery, set apart for confirmation, was known as the con- signatorium. In the ancient sacramentary of Pope Gelasius (492), confirmation is ordered