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 508 JAINS JALABERT mercantile classes of India. The sect is said to be very numerous, and most of the officers of state and revenue are from the Jain laity. The points in which the doctrines of the Jains differ from Brahmanism are, according to Wurm : 1, the rejection of the Vedas as an infallible guide of faith, and the substitution of their own religious literature, consisting of four Yogas, several Siddhantas, a number of Agamas, a few Angas and Upangas, and 24 Puranas, le- gends of the saints; 2, the adoration of 24 mortal saints, Tirthankaras, whose ascetic life raised them above the gods ; and 3, the ahinae, or prohibition against killing living beings. While in these respects there is an approach to Buddhism, there are others which remove the Jain religion from it. Atheism is not its starting point, but rather an attempt at monotheism. There is a god called Arugan or Jinan, from whom it is supposed that the Jains derive their name, and to whom 1,008 various appellations are given. His worship is believed to be that of the earth, the air, and the heavens. (See INDIA, RELIGIONS AND RELIGIOUS LITERA- TURE OF.) He is omniscient, and in his grace he communicates his thoughts to all creatures without the aid of their mind, word, or body. Nevertheless he is no creator, though himself uncreated and immortal. He says there is no god besides him ; blessed are those who adore him ; and all are rewarded according to their deeds. There is a hell, and there is a place where the gods dwell. Whoever is good and bad in an equal measure will be reborn as a human being ; he who is rather bad than good will be an unreasoning animal ; and he who is either predominantly bad or good will go ac- cordingly either to the infernal or divine abode. Arugan has 24 attributes, which are ascribed to the 24 Tirthankaras as incarnations of divine apprehensions, and who are worshipped in im- ages and at temples and feasts. There is no destruction and no renewing of the world ; it is eternal and uncreated. Time is divided into yugas, each of which has an ascending or iitsar- pini and a descending or avasarpini period. There are also manvantaras, and the present Manu, Nabi Makraja, is sometimes called Brah- ma. It was in his reign that the 24 Tirthanka- ras were born, and Vrishabha was the first. They attained unto knowledge and blessedness without the aid of a guru, and they are the true fwdmis or equals of Arugan. Jain priests are either sadhus, pious, or yatis, self-restrain- ed, and digambaras, naked, or svetambaras, clad in white. The Jains are opposed to the ancient system of castes, and allow it only as a distinc- tion of occupations. . It is said that there are about 50 families of Jain-Brahmans in Mysore, but on the whole it seems that the sect has found the largest number of votaries among the ancient Vaisyas. Jain priests never marry, but lead a sadhu or pure ascetic life. Widows never remarry. The men are generally well educated, but the women are kept in igno- rance. Young widows, however, commonly de- vote themselves to the priests, with whom they live, and from whom they learn to read the sa- cred books of their religion, whereby they be- come in fact like priestesses. The priests and strict Jains are scrupulously careful to avoid destruction of animal life. They move about with a cloth over their mouths to prevent in- sects from entering; they use constantly a small brush or broom to sweep aside all living creatures ; and they never partake of stale food, lest in the interval since its cooking ani- malcules may have formed in it. See Elliot, " On the Characteristics of the Population of India" (London, 1869), and Wurm, Die Oe- schichte der Indischen Religion (Basel, 1874). JAKOB, Lndwlg Hciiirich von, a German au- thor, born at Wettin, near Halle, Feb. 26, 1759, died at Lauchstadt, July 22, 1827. In 1780 he was appointed teacher at the gymnasium in Halle, and in 1791 professor of philosophy in the university. He was very popular as a lecturer on metaphysics, but after 1800 turned his attention especially to political economy. When the university of Halle was broken up by Napoleon, he went to Kharkov in Russia as professor of political sciences. He dis- tinguished himself as member of a committee appointed to suggest reforms in the finances of the empire, and received various tokens of regard from Alexander I. He was soon after appointed chief reviser of the criminal laws, and received a place in the department of finance. In 1816 he returned to Halle as pro- fessor of political science. A fourth edition of his Orundriss der allgemeinen Logik ap- peared in 1800 ; of his Orundriss der Erfahr- ungsteelenlehre in 1810 ; and a third edition of his Lehrbuch der Na,tionali)konomieml82o. Prof. Jakob was the father of "Talvj," the wife of the late Prof. Edward Robinson. JAL, August?, a French author, born in Ly- ons, April 12, 1795. He became known as the author of numerous works on art, and especial- ly on maritime archreology, including Scenes de la vie maritime (3 vols., Paris, 1832) ; Arche- ologie navale (2 vols., 1839) ; Olossaire nau- tique, which obtained the second Gobert prize (1848) ; and La flotte de Cesar (1861). He published in 1804 Dictionnaire critique de bio- graphie et ffhistoire, with the view of revising errors and of filling up gaps in cyclopedias. JALABERT, Charles Francois, a French paint- er, born in Nimes in 1819. He studied under Paul Delaroche and in Italy, executing there his famous picture of "Virgil reading his Georgics to Mtecenas in presence of Horace and Varus," which he exhibited in 1847, and which is in the Luxembourg. His " St. Luke " (1852) is at Sevres, and his " Annunciation " (1853) is in the ministry of state. He excels both as a religious and as a genre and land- scape painter. His works include "The Fare- well of Romeo and Juliet," " Raphael at work on the Madonna di San Sisto," " Christ walk- ing on the Sea," " Villanella " (a Roman land- scape), and many female portraits.