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 ITALY (LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE) 465 cations of 1799, which lie himself had wit- nessed. Carlo Botta, whose chief work is a history of the American war of independence, is inferior to Coco for deep philosophical insight, but superior for artistic literary forms. Ital- ian critics, however, reproach him with stiff- ness and pomposity in his Storia dell' indepen- denza deg/i Stati Uniti ; but they admit that his continuation of Guicciardini's history of Italy is written with more simplicity and natu- ralness, though lacking proportion in some of its principal parts, as well as accuracy in state- ment of facts and political impartiality. Col- letta, in his Storia del reame di Napoli, pro- duced a classical work which completes Coco's. His history begins with the inauguration at Naples of the Bourbon dynasty in 1734, and ends with the year 1825. His work is con- spicuous for its powerful groupii|g of facts, and for energy of thought and diction. Vacani was a historian of the Peninsular war. Amari wrote the history of the Arabs in Sicily and of the Sicilian vespers, illustrating obscure periods in an age of national glory. Cesare Cantu, began his career as a historical writer by Ragionamenti sulla storia Lombarda del secolo X VII. In 1837 appeared his great work, Storia universale, which has passed through several editions and been translated into Ger- man and French. His reputation was still further heightened by his Storia degli Ita- liani, II tempo de 1 Francesi, Gliereticid' 'Italia, La, storia di cento anni, and his latest work, V Independema italiana, embracing exclusive- ly Italian independence during the French, German, and national periods of the present century (vols. i. and ii., Turin, 1874). Cantii is also the author of histories of the Latin, Greek, and Italian literatures, of the city of Como, and of Italian contemporary poetry ; of several novels, educational works, and religious lyrics. Cantti is a firm Catholic in his religious belief; but the Neapolitan Ranieri and the journalist and historian Bianchi Bovini are decidedly adverse to Catholicism. The latter is the author of a history of the popes, a biog- raphy of Fra Paolo Sarpi, a history of the He- brews, and a monograph on Pope Joan. Ce- sare Balbo wrote historical meditations, a life of Dante, and a summary of the history of Italy. Balbo, Gino Capponi, the author of a history of Florence, and Carlo Troja belong like C/antii to the Guelphic school of publicists, who would fain see the popes at the head of Italy. Franscini wrote an accurate and authoritative statistical work on Switzerland (1847-'ol). La Farina is the author of a his- tory of Italy from the most ancient to recent times ; Federico Sclopis, of a history of Italian legislation (completed in 1857) ; Lu'igi Zeni, of an excellent compendium of Italian history; Romanin, of a learned history of Venice, writ- ten in opposition to that of Daru, and of a work on the Venetian inquisitors ; Carlo Ge- melli, of a history of the Belgian revolution of 1830 ; Giuseppe Rubini, of a history of Russia from 862 to 1725; Canette, of a history of Amadeus II. of Savoy; Canales, of a history of the Crimean war; Gallenga, of a general history of Piedmont; Angelo Brofferio, of a history of Piedmont from 1814 to 1849, and of other works interesting from their patriotic spirit as well as literary merit; Anelli, of a history of Italy from 1814 to 1850 ; Carlo Cat- taneo, of a history of the insurrection at Milan in 1848 (he was a member of the committee that directed the operations against the Aus- trians, and a participant in the struggle), and of the Archimo triennale, an elaborate and most careful and valuable collection of authen- tic documents relative to the events that oc- curred in Italy from 1848 to 1850 ; Federico Torre, of a history of the French expedition to Rome in 1849. Ferrari, in a work on repub- lican federation, treated the question under what form of government Italy ought to be reorganized. L. C. Farini wrote a history of the Papal States from 1814 to 1850 ; Gualterio and Vecchio of the events in Italy in 1848-'9. Among the latest writers on medieval Italian history are Atto Vanucci and Pasquale Villari. The latter is known as the biographer of Sa- vonarola, and a life of Machiavelli by him is now (1874) in the press. On social science the most recent publications are Minghetti's Econo- mia pubtlica and Opuscoli letterarj e economics, containing a series of letters on religious liber- ty ; Cibrario's Economia politico, del media evo and Delia schiavM e del sercaggio ; Zamboni's Oli Ezzellini and Dante eglischiavi ; and Ce- lestino Bianchi's history of Italian diplomacy. Among ecclesiastical writers are the Benedic- tine Tosti, who wrote a history of the church ; the Jesuits Luigi Taparelli d'Azeglio (the bro- ther of Massimo), author of remarkable works on natural right and international law, and one of the founders of the Civilta Cattolica; Pian- ciani, distinguished as a chemist and physicist ; Secchi, as an astronomer and a writer on solar physics ; Passaglia and Perrone, as authors of standard works on theology ; and Abbate Lam- bruschini, as a writer on education ; and the Theatine Ventura, celebrated alike as a pulpit orator and philosophical writer. The taste which prevailed in the first half of the 19th century for illustrating the national antiquities has even increased of late years. In the for- mer period were produced Inghirami's Monu- menti etrutehi, Delfico's Origini italiche, Fa- nucci's Storia dei Veneziani, Genovesi e Pisani, Manno's Storia di Sardegna, Bras's Malta il- lustrata, and Pompeo Litta's Famiglie celebri d'ltalia. Visconti (1751-1818) made himself a name in classical archseology, and Sestini in numismatics, the latter making his medals serve in illustrating geographical questions. Angelo Mai, De' Rossi, Borghesi, Gestaldi, Canestrini, Foresi, and others are the representative ar- chreologists of the latter period. De' Rossi's chief works are La Roma sotterranea crintiana (1864) and Inscriptions Christianas Urbis Ro- mas (1857-'61). Toward the close of the 18th