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 IKFALLIBILITY 265 nius IV., particularly after he had dissolved that body. The superiority of oecumenical councils to papal authority was embodied in the prag- matic sanction of Bourges in 1438, both as a theological maxim and as a rule of national jurisprudence. Thenceforward the theologians in France who maintained this superiority were called Galileans, and their opponents ul- tramontanes, Gallicanism, considered as a system of jurisprudence and theological doc- trine, comprised the liberties or franchises of the Gallican church, and the peculiar tenets of its churchmen with regard to the nature and limits of the pontifical supremacy. These Gallican franchises were understood in one sense by the churchmen, and in quite another by French magistrates. In reality they affirm- ed that the pope had no right, by virtue of his supremacy, to interfere with the king in the holding of his crown or the lawful exercise of his power; that the election of ecclesiastical dignitaries, the collation of benefices and the disposition of their revenues, the imposition and collection of taxes on church property, be- longed by inherent right and custom exclusive- ly to the church of France, under the protec- tion of the king. These franchises, and the peculiar doctrine of the Gallican church con- cerning the pope's inferiority to a general coun- cil, were formulated in six articles presented by the Sorbonne to Louis XIV., May 8, 1663, which were reaffirmed with greater solemnity in 1682. The famous "four articles" then proclaimed by the assembled clergy, besides the absolute independence of the civil power, de- clared that the plenitude of power in spirituals possessed by the successors of St. Peter is to be limited by the decrees of the council of Con- stance, which have ever been in force in the Gallican church; that the use of the pope's apostolic power is to be regulated by the canons, and within the kingdom of France by the received rules, customs, and constitutions ; and that, although the pope has the chief au- thority in questions of faith, and his decrees regard all the churches, and each church in par- ticular, nevertheless his judgment is not irre- formable until the consent of the whole church supervenes. The whole question of infallibility continued to be vehemently discussed by Jes- uits and Jansenists, Gallicans and ultramon- tanes, down to the French revolution. When public worship was restored by Bonaparte, the concordat concluded with him by Pius VII. > abolished the old French hierarchy with all its privileges, and established now sees and new ecclesiastical dioceses. But Bonaparte inserted in the concordat, on its publication, what is known as the " organic articles," which among other tilings reaffirmed the offensive portion of the declaration of 1682. This was main- tained as the law of the land and a rule of state policy through every change of govern- ment, although Gallicanism itself was con- stantly on the wane. In 1867 it was resolved by Pius IX. and the bishops assembled in Rome that an oecumenical council should be convened without delay; and it soon became generally known that one of the doctrinal questions to be decided in the council was that of pontifical infallibility. A warm discussion immediately began as to the opportuneness as well as the possibility of such a definition. Conspicuous among the opponents of the contemplated measure was Dr. Bellinger of Munich, and among its promoters Archbishop Manning of London. The Jesuits, always the most strenu- ous advocates of papal prerogative, used all their influence to secure the definition. In France the bishops were divided ; in England, Ireland, the United States, Germany, and Aus- tria, a majority would have preferred delay; but Italy and Spain were for instant definition. Among the European governments a strong diplomatic effort, originating with Bavaria and seconded by France, was made to dissuade the court of Rome from a step deemed full of danger. On Dec. 8, 1869, the council was opened by Pius IX. in the Vatican basilica of St. Peter's. A first doctrinal constitution on Catholic faith, having been elaborated and ac- cepted, was officially proclaimed, April 24, 1870. Then began the discussion of a second constitution " on the church," ending with the decree on pontifical infallibility. Outside the council itself, the dogma in its theological and historical aspect, and its bearing on the rela- tion of the church to civil governments, was vehemently discussed in the press. A corre- spondence between Bishop Dupanloup and Archbishop Manning, and the publication of an exhaustive Gallican argument by M. Ma- ret, bishop of Sura, had created much inter- est just before the opening of the council; and this was largely increased by the appear- ance during its sittings of a series of letters in the Augsburg Allgemeine Zeitung signed "Ja- nus," afterward published in book form with the title of "The Pope and the Council." (See DOLLINGEH.) Another series of letters from Rome were printed in England from the pen of " Quirinus," while two more is- sued from the French press entitled Ce qui te passe au concile and La. derniere heure du concile. Within the council itself every por- tion of the schema or draught was warmly discussed. On July 11 the schema of the chap- ter on infallibility was discussed in detail and adopted in a general congregation; and the whole schema was put to the vote in another congregation held on the 18th. Each prelate voted placet, if content ; placet jttxta modum, if only content with a part ; or non placet, if not content. The register showed 451 as voting placet, 62 placet juxta modum, and 88 non placet. On July 18, in solemn session, 534 prelates answered placet, 2 non placet, and 65 were absent, of whom a majority did not wish to vote favorably. See Archbishop Man- ning's Petri Prinilegium (London, 1871), and "The Pope and the Council," by Janus (Bos- ton, 1870). (See also OLD CATHOLICS.)