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 560 CHRONOLOGY CHRYSALIS could be ascertained by astronomical calcula- tion that an eclipse was visible about that time in Asia Minor, its exact period would fix the date of the battle. But the calculation of a solar eclipse at such a remote time is a some- what uncertain operation ; for the minutest error in the tables used would throw the moon's shadow on an entirely different part of the globe. Mr. Airy, the British astronomer royal, has calculated that the eclipse of 610 could not have been visible in any part of Asia Minor, and that the only one applicable to the case is that of May 28, 585. If therefore the statement of the historian as to the fact, and the calculation of the astronomer as to the eclipse, are correct, the battle occurred in 585 and not in 610. Either may be erroneous, most likely Herodotus. Lunar eclipses, being visible over a whole hemisphere, require much less nicety of calculation, and are more avail- able for chronological purposes. The foun- dation of the modern science of chronolo- gy may bo said to have been laid by Joseph Scaliger in his works De Emendatione Tem- porum (Paris, 1583; enlarged, Leyden, 1598; Geneva, 1629), and Thesaurus Temporum (Paris, 1606; best ed., Amsterdam, 1658). Among other important works are : Petavius, De Doctrina Temporum (Paris, 1627), with its continuation, Uranologion (Paris, 1630), and abridgment, Rationarium Temporum (Paris, 1630, and since) ; Riccioli, Chronologia Refor- mata (Bologna, 1669); VArt de verifier let dates, by the Benedictines of St. Maur (last ed., 1783-7), continued by Fortia d'Urban; Champollion-Figeac, Resume complet de chro- nologic generate et speciale (Paris, 1830); Ch. Dreyss, Chronologic uniterscllc (1853) ; Kor- nick, System der Zeitrechnung in ehronolo- gischen Talellen (Berlin, 1825); Ideler, Hand- luck der mathematischen und technischen Chronologic (Berlin, 1825), and Lehrluch der Chronologic (Berlin, 1831); Matzka, Chronolo- gic in ihrem gamen Umfang (Vienna, 1844) ; Lepsius, Chronologic der Aegypter (Berlin, 1849); Archbishop Usher, Annales Vcteris et Novi Testamenti (London, 1650-'54); Sir Isaac Newton, " Chronology of Ancient King- doms" (London, 1728; an answer to it was written by Freret, Paris, 1758); Jackson, "Chronological Antiquities" (London, 1752); Blair, " Chronology and History of the World " (London, 1756; a new edition, revised and en- larged by J. W. Rosse, was published in Lon- don, 1856) ; Playfair, " System of Chronology " (Edinburgh, 1784); Hales, " New Analysis of Chronology" (1800-'12); Clinton, Fasti Ilel- lenici (Oxford, 1824-'34), and Fasti Romani (Oxford, 1845-'50); Sir Harris Nicolas, "The Chronology of History " (in Lardner's " Cab- inet Cyclopaedia," vol. xliv., 1833). Rawlinson's translation of Herodotus (4 vols., London, 1858-' 60; new ed., London, 1862, New York, 1872) is furnished with valuable dissertations in respect to ancient chronology by Sir Henry Rawlinson and Sir Gardner Wilkinson; and his "Five Great Monarchies" (2d ed., London, 1870; New York, 1871) treats elaborately of the chronology of Chaldea, Assyria, Babylon, Media, and Persia. Among the most useful manuals of reference are : J. W. Rosse, " Index of Dates" (London, 1858), which forms an alphabetical index to Blair's "Chronological Tables;" Haydn's " Dictionary of Dates," con- tinued by Vincent (12th ed., London and New York, 1866, with supplement to 1870); Wood- ward and Cates's " Encyclopaedia of Chronol- ogy" (London, 1872). CHRONOMETER. See CLOCKS AND WATCHES. CHRCDIM, a town of Bohemia, formerly capi- tal of a circle of the same name, situated on the right bank of the Chrudimka, 60 m. E. S. E. of Prague; pop. in 1869, 11,218. It has a Realschule, a high school, several breweries, sugar factories, and paper mills. CHRYSALIS, a name generally limited to the second stage of the growth of lepidopterous insects, or to the pupa from a caterpillar, be- Chrysalis of larj*e Tortoise-shell Butterfly, magnified. 1. With the upper parts opened. '2. With the upper parts pressed down ana adhering to the body. cause, as the term implies, they are sometimes gilt or ornamented with golden spots ; aurelia is synonymous with chrysalis. When the limbs are not covered, the term nymph is applied to insects in this stage, more especially when the grubs eat; and the word pupa is properly employed for those which entirely lose the larva form, take no food, and remain motionless, bound up like a swathed mummy. The chrysalis, like all pupae which undergo a complete metamorphosis, is motionless and does not eat. On a close examination, traces of the head and its organs, the wings, and the legs, may be seen closely pressed to the body and adherent to it by a kind of varnish. Some are angular and covered with protuberances, but most are smooth and spindle-shaped. The manner in which the perfect insects come out has been described in the article BUTTEH- FLY, where also are mentioned their various modes of suspension. Most are contained in a cocoon, from which exit is easy for the insect by the disposition of the threads at one end. Those of the butterflies are uncovered and'