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548 the society of her court ladies, and ever seeking conversation with men. She had a high sense of the value of time, devoting not more than a quarter of an hour to her toilet. Her observers at this time declare that she valued nothing but honor and virtue, and predicted that her extraordinary merit alone would make her reign illustrious, independent of foreign conquest and the valor of her armies. Such was the bright promise of her youth, the more remarkable from contrast with coming shadows. The administration of the regency during the minority of Christina was confided to a council of five members, at the head of whom was Oxenstiern, the chancellor of the late king. The death of this sovereign betokened great changes in the state of Europe. The German Protestants, now without a leader, were at once split up into factions. Their imperialist enemies, though worsted at Lützen (1632), prepared vigorously to renew the war. Oxenstiern was appointed by the Swedish regents to be “legate plenipotentiary of the Swedish crown in the Roman empire, and with all the armies.” He proceeded to the theatre of war, and devoted all his great genius to finding resources for the support of the Protestant cause. Christina assumed the exercise of sovereignty Dec. 6, 1644. Her reign was begun most auspiciously under the guidance of the greatest statesman of the age. Her ingratitude was not slow to follow. The last victories of her army in Germany were hailed with rapture at home, and won for the commander his sovereign's cordial and graceful acknowledgments. Torstenson had overthrown the main army of the imperialists under Gallas. The remaining three years of the war were less brilliant in victories, but more remorselessly vindictive than the other periods. The closing year (1648) found France more than ever united with the Swedes. Turenne received orders to support the new Swedish general Wrangel with his whole force. They effected a junction after much difficulty, and carried on a war of utter devastation against Bavaria. Charles Gustavus, the cousin of the queen, arrived from Sweden with reënforcements, and with the commission of generalissimo. Christina had sent him to command the army in order to rid herself of his importunate courtship. He laid vigorous siege to Prague, which must soon have fallen had not the emperor Ferdinand III., dreading this catastrophe and the certain loss of Bohemia consequent upon it, resolved to arrest it by accepting terms of peace. The Swedes and French had overthrown every other power in Germany, and it remained for the emperor to make the best terms he could. Accordingly the treaty of Westphalia, securing Protestant liberty, was signed Oct. 24, 1648, simultaneously in Osnabrück and Münster. Sweden received money equivalent to $5,300,000 for payment of her troops, and retained possession of Upper Pomerania, Rügen, Lower Pomerania up to the Oder, the delta of this river, with

Stettin, Gartz, Wismar, Bremen, and Verden, all as fiefs of the empire. Christina's desire for peace had been ardent during the negotiations. It was destined, however, to bring her greater cares and anxieties than she had suffered during the war. Throughout her dominions the great conflict left behind it internal derangements so vast that she soon resolved to commit the task to other hands. The war had been totally disproportioned to the forces of the country. A proper distribution of the burden became an insolvable problem. The internal balance of the state was profoundly disturbed, and there needed a creative spirit like that of Gustavus Adolphus to restore it upon new foundations. Oxenstiern had withdrawn from court, having lost favor with the queen. His influence had been eclipsed by unworthy favorites, and although he shortly returned to his post and to the direction of affairs, he failed to satisfy the country; less indeed from the infirmities of great age, as has been said, than from a new order of things which in its operations jostled him aside. The most deserved reproaches have been heaped upon Christina for her capricious and dissolute conduct at this time; but during great trials to which she was exposed, she gave proof of intellect and courage. She had brilliant merits to reward and many wrongs to redress, and the care which she gave to old and wounded soldiers demands great praise. She was young, vivacious, and liberal without stint. The registers of her reign are filled with deeds of alienation of crown property, patents of nobility, tokens of grace and gifts of every sort. But it was soon evident that personal favor was to become the source of benefactions exceeding all others in amount. A young favorite, the handsomest of her courtiers, Magnus de la Gardie, was enriched with an annual income of 80,000 rix dollars in landed estate alone. Other favorites in time eclipsed him. Her father had already offered to Grotius an asylum in Sweden; and Christina invited learned men to her court from every quarter of Europe. Among the number, Descartes was with the young sovereign at 5 o'clock every morning for two months, and the impression which this philosopher made upon her mind has been said to have given her the first bias to skepticism. The origin of her new tendency, however, is with better reason ascribed to her physician Bourdelot, who, having rescued her from a dangerous illness, prescribed gayety of life for the future, and imparted to his patient his own scorn of all religion. This man took the place of De la Gardie, and through him presently all the favors of the throne were dispensed. She was constantly urged by the diet and her council to marry. The prospects of the monarchy now inspired much apprehension; but although her hand was sought by many princes, the queen resolutely declined a matrimonial alliance. Her father had intended her for Frederick William, afterward the great elector of