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 CHINA 461 the British, and where the population is more I turbulent than elsewhere along the coast, diffi- culties with foreigners were continually occur- ring. The great fact upon which the danger of the situation depended was that a satisfac- tory basis of intercourse had not been reached. Foreigners, coming as they did from states of advanced power and civilization, were unwil- ling to take up an inferior position before the Chinese. The emperor and his officials claimed for China the sovereignty of the world, and that it was by his august sufferance alone that intercourse was permitted. Many of the offi- cials entertained a more or less just sense of the intelligence of foreigners and of the ad- vantages to be derived from commerce ; but Chinese officials are invariably time-servers, and they could not enter upon the task of en- lightening the central government. At length it became manifest that a war would be needed to effect more satisfactory relations. The pre- text for military operations was the seizure of the Arrow, a vessel of Chinese construction registered in Hong Kong under a colonial ordi- nance. On Oct. 8, 1856, a party of Chinese constabulary boarded this craft, tore down the British flag, and carried away the crew, who were Chinese. The British consul informed the viceroy of what had been done, and de- manded the return of the men and a disavowal of the act of the constabulary. The viceroy re- turned the men, but refused to apologize. Fur- ther correspondence ensued, but a satisfactory result was not obtained, and the British au- thorities proceeded with such force as was available to active hostilities. It will appear strange to the reader that such operations should be entered upon by the British repre- sentatives without reference to the home gov- ernment. It is to be remembered, however, that the Chinese government had persistently refused to receive on terms of equality the representatives of western states, and that the intercourse of foreign officials was carried on with the provincial authorities. There was no way to reach the imperial government except- ing through these, and a petty war with them was the only recourse excepting a general war with the empire. During the preceding years since the establishment of relations at Nanking, these local operations had not been infrequent, and had resulted favorably as a rule without being carried further than a mere demonstra- tion of force and of a determination to procure redress. The operations of the British forces at this time resulted in the capture of various forts near Canton. The viceroy, so far from yielding under this pressure, appeared disposed to defy British power, and proceeded to offer a reward for British heads, $30 at first, and afterward $100. An attempt to poison resi- dents at Hong Kong followed. The running warfare thus opened was kept up for several months, the advantages resting with the Chi- nese rather than with the British. Meanwhile the situation was receiving the attention of the government of Great Britain, and it deter- mined to secure a satisfactory settlement, at the expense if necessary of a second war. The French government, actuated by a sense of the difficulty of conducting relations with China under the existing system, and having various grievances, concluded to join in an expedition intended to demand satisfaction and to enforce more satisfactory relations. The American and Russian governments held that they had no special ground for complaint, and, while sending out special ministers, gave them pacific instructions. It is a matter of history that the American envoy, who entered upon his mis- sion with a disposition to deprecate the course of England and France, felt constrained at a later moment to admit that it was justified by all the circumstances, and that it would have been wiser for his country to unite in the ef- fort to effect more satisfactory relations. An expeditionary force left England in the spring of 1857, but was diverted to India to aid in the suppression of the mutiny. Toward the end of the year a portion of the force reached Hong Kong, and Lord Elgin, with the support of Baron Gros, the French commissioner, was able to present an ultimatum to the vice- roy. The response was deemed unsatisfactory. The bombardment of Canton by the allied British and French forces commenced Dec. 28, and the city was occupied the next day. The force engaged on the British side was about 5,000 men, the French 900. The com- bined losses were 10 killed and 100 wounded. The Chinese loss was perhaps 250. There was no lack of disposition to hold the city on the part of the Chinese, and many indications of valor on their part were shown. The speedy and comparatively bloodless capture of a city of more than a million inhabitants, in face of their best efforts to hold it, must be attributed sim- ply to the superior organization, armament, and morale of the attacking forces. The viceroy Yeh was detained by the British authorities. The control of its inhabitants was necessarily confided to the native governor under the supervision of a commission of British and French officers. It has been mentioned in the notice of the war of 1840-'42 that trade with Canton was continued while military opera- tions were prosecuted in the north. So in this instance, the allies while holding Canton permitted trade to take its usual course. The several foreign representatives at this stage of proceedings met by arrangement at Shanghai, and united in a request to the government at Peking to send to that city a high commission with full powers to discuss the situation, and to effect more liberal treaties. Responses to these several letters were received in due course. The government, so far from acceding to the request for the appointment of a spe- cial commission, declared that Yeh had been degraded and that Hwang had been ap- pointed in his stead, and enjoined the sev- eral envoys to repair to Canton. The latter