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 CHINA 455 ligion, which was a curious mixture of the oldest Chinese religion and Christian doctrines ; it recognized divine revelation as still continu- ing ; its professors were fanatical and intoler- ant propagandists. Christianity appears to have fonnd adherents in China at an early date. It is certain that the Nestorians had flourishing missions which began in the 7th century, and certainly existed till 1330, when they were reported to numher about 30,000 souls. The first Roman Catholic mission was established by Johannes de Monte Corvino. He was made archbishop by Pope Clement V. in 1305, and seven suffragan bishops were sent to his assistance. After the final establishment of the Ming dynasty almost nothing is known of the Catholics or the Nestorians. The Cath- olic missions were reestablished in the second half of the 16th century, chiefly by Jesuits, and have been maintained ever since, but with varying success and influence. The Roman Catholic population of China is estimated by Hue at 700,000. The estimates of other Cath- olic missionaries vary from 400,000 to 1,000,000. Since the treaty with France of 1858 the Catholic congregations have received large ac- cessions, and the church property has been greatly increased, chiefly by the recovery of estates previously seized by the government or lapsed through the hostility of the people. At the close of 1872 there were in China proper 26 vicariates apostolic and three prefectures apostolic, and in Chinese dependencies three vicariates. The first Protestant mission was begun in 1807 by the London missionary so- ciety, since when a number of other societies, English, American, and German, have sent out missionaries. The Protestant missions have been confined until lately to the open ports. In 1869 they had an aggregate membership of 5,624-. A mission of the Greek church was established under Peter the Great, and in 1872 numbered a few hundred converts. The Mo- hammedans number many millions ; there are at least 200,000 in Peking alone. The form of government is monarchical, but not despotical, since the emperor is bound by ancient laws and customs, and could scarcely without danger disregard the advice or remonstrances of his ministers or the boards of administration. The official title of the emperor is hwang-ti, auto- crat, as nearly as it can be translated. His real name is never used while he lives, but the period of his reign has a special name expres- sive of its character and tendencies. The em- peror designates himself by the terms kua-jin, the solitary or unequalled man, and kua-Mun, the solitary prince. His throne is called "the dragon's throne." Like all oriental princes, his person is venerated in an extreme man- ner. He never appears in public unless pre- ceded by a large body guard. His courtiers and chamberlains are for the most part eunuchs, of whom perhaps 1,000 are connected with the palace. He has one legitimate wife (hwang- hoi, empress), two wives of an inferior rank (fu-shin, queens), and a great number of con- cubines. The emperor makes choice of his successor from among the sons of his three wives, but the selection remains a secret until his death. The daughters are married to Mon- golian or Mantchoo princes. Every succeed- ing generation of the imperial offspring stands one grade lower in the ranks of nobility, until at the seventh remove they belong to the peo- ple at large, but are governed by a special board called board of the imperial clan. Only the highest classes of princes are obliged to live at court. Besides this nobility of birth, there is a personal dignity generally connected with official rank, to which every one has access irrespective of birth. The five ancient degrees of dignity are kung, han, pe, tse, and nan, some- times rendered duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and baron. The mark of official nobility is the peacock's feather. Titular rank is sold to ambi- tious individuals, in the same manner as official titles, such as aulic councillor, secret councillor, &c., in some German states. The civil manda- rins number about 15,000, the military about 20,000. Each are divided into nine classes, and rank alike. Officials of the first rank wear a ruby placed on the apex of the hat ; those of the second a red coral button ; those of the third a sapphire ; those of the fourth a blue opaque stone; those of the fifth a crystal; those of the sixth a white shell button; those of the seventh one of plain gold ; those of the eighth one of worked gold ; and those of the ninth one of worked silver. There are addi- tional indications of rank embroidered on the garments worn, which differ in the civil and military grades. The administration of the imperial government is complicated. A cabinet (nui-kau), consisting of four chief chancellors and a number of assessors, has the general superintendence and legislative regulation of the country. Two of the members of this board are Mantchoos and two Chinese. The former have a veto upon the latter. The em- peror himself takes a prominent part in the labors of this board. Of late a portion of its powers has been vested in a cabinet council of five members only (kiun-ki-chu), Avhich corre- sponds to the ministry of western nations. Its members are selected by the emperor from the functionaries of the highest rank. The duties of these supreme councils are general, com- prising matters relating to all departments of the government. The principal executive bodies under them are the six boards (luh-pu), viz. : 1, board of civil service (li-pu) ; 2, board of revenue (hu-pu) ; 3, board of rites (li-pu or imperial household, court matters, and di- plomacy ; 4, board of war (ping-pu) ; 5, board of justice (hing-pu), performing also the func- tions of a supreme court of appeals (ta-li-se) ; 6, board of public works (kung-pu). Each de- partment has two presidents, four vice presi- dents (one half Chinese, the other Mantchoos), and three subordinate grades of officers (direc- tors, under-secretaries, and controllers), besides