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 CALIFORNIA CALIGULA 615 goons. The mountains are in general barren and desolate near their summits ; but at their base are cactuses of extraordinary size, and such of the valleys as have a sufficiency of water are very fertile. Only a few small streams fall into the sea, but there are several springs in the interior, sending forth streams which lose themselves in the sand. Along the coast lagoons there is much good soil, and in the plains and most of the dry river beds water is found a few feet below the surface. Where irrigation has been practised, the crops are abundant. Extending through nearly 10 of latitude, Lower California has a great variety of climate. For about 80 m. N. of Cape San Lucas the air is mild, being tempered by the sea breeze ; from this section N. to Loreto, lat. 26 16', the heat is excessive; but further N. the air is cooler. The summer temperature on the Pacific coast ranges from 58 to 71 ; that of the gulf coast is hotter. The sky is remark- able for its transparency and deep azure color, save at sunset, when it is often variegated by the most beautiful shades of violet, purple, and green. In winter there are heavy rains and terrific tornadoes. In summer and autumn, especially on the gulf coast, rain often falls from a cloudless sky. The vegetable produc- tions of Lower California are maize, wheat, beans, peas, manioc, grapes, oranges, lemons, citrons, prunes, dates, plantains, pineapples, olives, and figs. The sugar cane has also been cultivated, and some cotton was raised by the Jesuits. Several varieties of the agave family are abundant, and many kinds of acacia trees, such as mesquites, algarrobas, and locusts, are common. Two varieties of native palms, bear- ing edible fruit, are frequently found. The pine, cedar, oak, wild plum, cottonwood, syca- more, willow, and elder are also met with. The principal animals are wild sheep, goats, horses, horned cattle, mules, and swine. The adjacent seas abound with excellent fish. The pearl oyster is found at intervals along the coast. It is most abundant in the bay of La Paz, near Loreto, and in the hays of Mulej6 and Los Angeles. Fossil remains are found in various parts. Argentiferous galenas are very common above Mulej6 bay, and pure sulphur occurs in the same region. Copper ores are found in several places between the N. boun- dary and the old mission of Rosario, about lat. 31, on the Pacific coast, and also on the N. gulf coast ; the deposits on Ceralbo, San Jos6, and Espiritu Santo island are very rich. Quick- silver is also said to have been found near Santa Catalina mission, at the head of the gulf. The salt beds of the Pacific coast, from San Quintin to Magdalena bay, are numerous, and the salt is readily obtained. The mines on Carmen island are very rich, and large quantities of salt have been exported to San Francisco. The Mexican government has of late derived con- siderable revenue from these mines. Gold and lead are found, a mine of the former exist- ing near La Paz. Lower California was dis- covered by Cortes in 1536. About 1690 the Jesuits formed establishments here, and in- structed the natives in agriculture and civiliza- tion. They practised irrigation extensively, and exported some agricultural products to the mainland of Mexico. The Jesuits were ex- pelled in 1767, and the missions were placed under the charge of the Dominican monks of the city of Mexico, under whom they greatly declined ; and in 1833 they were all secularized by act of congress. In 1866 the Mexican gov- ernment granted that portion of the peninsula lying between lat. 31 and 24 20' to the "Lower California company" of New York, with considerable privileges. Their attempts at colonization, however, have not been suc- cessful. CALIGNY, Jean Antenor Due de, a French mili- tary and civil engineer, born in 1657, died in 1731. He was present at the sieges of Valen- ciennes, Freiburg, Courtrai, Furnes, and Dix- mude, and superintended the construction of the Burgundy canal. He strengthened Calais against the English in 1694 and 1696 by new forts ; and in 1706, after the battle of Ramil- lies, he frustrated the plans of Marlborough, by causing the two banks of the canals of Lef- finghe and of Bruges to be inundated. He also constructed the great dam on the Aa, at Gravelines. CALIGULA, Cains Casar Augustas Germanlens, the third emperor of Rome, born at Antium, Aug. 31, A. D. 12, put to death in Rome, Jan. 24, 41. He was the youngest son of Germanicus, the nephew of Tiberius. His proper name was Oaius CeBsar, Caligula being an epithet applied to him from the caliga or half-boot of the Ro- man soldiers, which he usually wore in his youth. By his contemporaries he was always called Caius, and he regarded the name of Ca- ligula as an insult. His earliest years were passed in camp with his father, and he became popular with the soldiers. After the murder of his father and the exile of his mother, Agrip- pina, he was brought up by his great-grand- mother Li via, and afterward lived in the house of his grandmother Antonia. Tiberius promoted him to various posts of honor, and encouraged him to look forward to the succession to the imperial crown. Tiberius was killed in 37, as is generally believed, at the instigation of Ca- ligula, who at all events afterward boasted that he had attempted to put him to death to avenge the wrongs which his family had suffered. Ti- berius in his will named his grandson Tibe- rius Gemellus as co-heir with Caligula, but the senate and people gave the sovereign power to Caligula alone. The first seven months of his reign seemed a period of general prosperity. He then fell sick, and Rome was in mourning ; many persons vowed to sacrifice their lives to redeem that of the emperor. When he. recov- ered, his whole character appeared to have suf- fered a change. There can be no doubt that he had a constitutional taint of insanity, which was now more fully developed. He slept scarcely