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 580 CALENDAR zodiac. The Roman year from the time of Numa began at the winter solstice. It was not prohably the original purpose of Caesar to change this time of the commencement of the year, and his motive for delaying it several days till Jan. 1 was doubtless the desire to make the first year of the reformed calendar begin with the day of the new moon. Among the Latin Christian nations there were seven diiferent dates for the commencement of the year : March 1 ; Jan. 1 ; Dec. 25 ; March 25 (beginning the year more than nine months sooner than we do ; this was called the Pisan calculation, and, though unknown in Spain, England, and Germany, was followed in seve- ral states till 1745); March 25 (beginning the year nearly three months later than we do; this was called the Florentine calculation, and was much in use from the 10th century till 1745); at Easter; and on Jan. 1 (but one year in advance of us). In France the year began in general at March 1, under the Merovingians ; at Dec. 25, under the Oarlovingians ; and at Easter, under the Capetians. By edict of Charles IX., in 1564, the beginning of the year was ordered at Jan. 1. In England, from the 14th century till the change of style in 1752, the legal and ecclesiastical year began at March 25, though it was not uncommon in writing to reckon it from Jan. 1. After the change was adopted in 1752, events which had occurred in January, February, and before March 25, of the old legal year, would, accord- ing to the new arrangement, be reckoned in the next subsequent year. Thus the revolu- tion of 1688 occurred in February of that legal year, or, as we should now say, in February, 1689 ; and it was at one time customary to write the date thus: February, 168f. The year of the French revolutionary calendar, which was instituted in 1792, began with Sept. 22. It consisted of 12 months of 30 days each, with five sacred days at the end devoted to festivals, and called the sansculottides. The months were divided into three decades of ten days each. Every period of four years was termed afranciade, and was terminated by six instead of five festival days. The more accurate ad- justment was arranged according to the Gre- gorian regulation for leap year. The Gre- gorian calendar was restored in France, Jan. 1, 1806. The ancient northern nations of Eu- rope began their year from the winter solstice. In the era of Constantinople, which was in use in the Byzantine empire, and in Russia till the time of Peter the Great, the civil year began with Sept. 1, and the ecclesiastical sometimes with March 21, and sometimes with April 1. The beginning of the Mohammedan year, which is lunar, is not at any fixed time, but retro- grades through the different seasons of the solar year. The later Jewish year is lunar, but by the intercalation of a 13th month 7 times in a cycle of 19 years is brought in harmony with the solar periods ; it begins at the autumnal equinox. Among most of the peoples of the CALENDERING East Indies the year is lunar, and begins with the first quarter of the moon the nearest to the beginning of December. Among the Peruvians the year began at the winter solstice, and among the Mexicans at the vernal equinox. The year of the former was lunar, and was divided into four equal parts, bearing the names of their four principal festivals, instituted in honor of their four divinities allegorical of the seasons. The Mexicans had a year of 360 days and 5 supple- mentary days. They divided it into 18 months of 20 days, and had a leap year. (See CHEO- NOLOGY, and YEAR.) CALENDERING (Fr. calandre, from Gr. K^LV- Spof, cylinder), the process of finishing cotton and linen goods by passing the cloth between smooth cylinders, which are made to revolve in contact. The term also includes the subse- quent operations of cloth-lapping, or folding the cloth, and packing and shipping it, which operations are performed in the same establish- ment. Paper is also subjected to the finishing process of calendering. The name calender is applied to the machine comprising the rollers which smooth the woven fabrics. Before pass- ing the cloth between them, it is essential that such as is designed for calico printing should be subjected to the singeing process, in order to remove the loose fibres or down. It con- sists in drawing the cloth rapidly over a hori- zontal gas pipe, along which numerous little apertures extend in a straight line, so that the gas, ignited, gives a line of flame equal in length to the width of the cloth. Another pipe, placed over this and exhausted of air, draws in the flame through the goods as they pass be- tween the two pipes, and the loose fibres are burned out without igniting the fabric. The movement is at the rate of about three feet in a second. Any sparks that may remain are extinguished as the cloth immediately passes between two rubbers placed in front of the line of flame. A yellow color like that of nankeen is produced by this process, which requires to be removed by bleaching, before printing. As the goods are received by the calender, they are commonly first dampened, whereby the folds and creases are partially removed, and the cloth is better prepared for the succeeding operation. The objects to be attained in cal- endering are, rendering the surface of the fab- ric smooth and even by the removal of all wrinkles, the flattening down of all knots and other imperfections, and the spreading of the threads so as to give them a flattened form, and the texture the appearance of closeness and strength. The polish upon cotton goods, called glazing, is produced by the friction they receive in this process. Lawns and muslins of light texture are smoothed in light machines not heated, and with moderate pressure, there being no objection to their threads retaining the cylindrical form, and the fabric its open texture. Fabrics which are to go to the cali- co printer require a high pressure, and some- times to be passed twice through the rollers ;