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 BIBLE 613 are chiefly based on Griesbach's. Greenfield followed Mill, but gave Griesbach's principal variations. Scholz (Leipsic, 1830-'36) made a wide collation of MSS., and Lachmann a very critical study of a few MSS. The late Dean Alford and Dr. Tregelles in England, and Tischendorf in Germany, are among the most eminent laborers in our own day. Tischendorf's first edition (Leipsic, 1841) followed Griesbach and Lachmann, but subsequently he carried out a most elaborate plan of travel and investiga- tion, and published its results in his second edition (Leipsic, 1849). Other editions have followed in 1850, 1854, and 1855-'9, the last giving valuable accounts of his critical labors, and presenting the best text hitherto published. A new edition begun in 1864 is nearly com- pleted (1873). Tregelles has published (1855- '70) an edition from collation and comparison of MSS. of all the Greek fathers down to the Nicene council. His edition is incomplete, be- ing interrupted by the state of his health. The various critical editions of the New Testament bear conclusive witness to the genuineness of the text in every matter of importance. There has been no material corruption in the sacred record. The ancient translations of the Old and New Testaments are in some respects of great value. The oldest of these and the most celebrated is the Greek version of the Old Testament called the Septuagint (LXX.) from its 72 translators, or perhaps from the 72 members of the Sanhedrim who sanctioned it. It was commenced by Jews of Alexandria about 280 B. 0., and was finished in the course of years evidently by different hands. The Pentateuch is pronounced by scholars the best portion of the work ; other portions are unequal ; here and there it is considered to be- tray an imperfect knowledge of the Hebrew lan- guage. It contains most of the books called the Apocrypha. (See APOCRYPHA). The Greek Jews, in the declining state of the Hebrew tongue, made great use of the Septuagint, and even the Jews of Palestine held it in high esteem until the Christians in the second century quo- ted it against them. They then denied its agreement with the Hebrew, and it became odious to them. In Jerome's day there were three differing yet authorized editions of the Septuagint in use : one in Palestine, one at Al- exandria, and one in Constantinople. Hence the corruptions that mar the MSS. in our pos- session. The Septuagint was the parent of many translations in Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Coptic, Armenian, Georgian, Slavonic, and Arabic. Many oriental versions were made from the Hebrew, of uncertain date ; among them the Targums in Chaldee (see TARGUMS), the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Syriac transla- tion called the Peshito or " simple," one of the oldest translations of the Bible, several in Ara- bic, and one in Persian. There were also other Greek versions, of which the most celebrated was that of Aquilo, made about A. D. 135, and valuable on account of its anxious literalness. Fragments of it are preserved in Origen's Hex- apla. But after the Septuagint the most famous version from the Hebrew was the Latin version of Jerome, the basis of the present Vulgata Jerome, who had previously undertaken a re- vision of the old Latin translation of the New Testament, called the Itala, revised the Psalter also from the Septuagint about 383. About 389 he began a new version from the Hebrew, and completed the work about 405. The work, though in parts hastily, was on the whole well done. The translator made use of the Greek versions that were before him, as well as of the Arabic and the Syriac, always, however, com- paring them with the Hebrew. The transla- tion, having to contend with a superstitious rev- erence for the Septuagint, met with a doubtful reception, and made its way slowly into favor, but in the course of 200 or 300 years it was highly regarded at Rome and in other places, but not so highly as to escape corruption from careless copyists, indiscreet revisers, ambitious critics, and reckless theologians. The old Vulgate (the Itala) and the new injured each other. Alcuin, early in the 9th century, bid- den, and as some think aided by Charlemagne, revised and corrected Jerome's version by the Hebrew and Greek originals. Lanfranc, arch- bishop of Canterbury in the llth century, revised it again. The council of Trent (1546), having received a report from a commission that the text was very corrupt, so that only the pope could restore it, declared that "the old and Vulgate edition . . . shall be held as authentic, . . . and that no one, on any pre- text whatever, may dare or presume to reject it." The council also decreed that the edition " should be printed as accurately as possible." As it had become necessary to prepare an authentic edition of the authorized version, two popes, Pius IV. and V., addressed them- selves to this task; learned men were assem- bled, a printing press was erected in the Vat- ican, a pontiff looked over the printed sheets, and the work was published in 1590; but it proved to be so imperfect that Gregory XIV. called another assembly of scholars to make another revision. This time the duty was more thoroughly discharged, and the BiUia, Sacra Vulg. Ed,. Tat. V. Pont. Max. JUMU recog., &c., the basis of every subsequent edition, was issued in 1592. The famous Bel- larmin, one of the translators, wrote the pref- ace. Translations of the New Testament were made very early into all the tongues then spo- ken by Christians. A few words upon some of the more modern versions will be in place here. In Germany, Martin Luther spent ten laborious years, from 1522 to 1532, in execu- ting that wonderful translation which has done so much for the Bible and for the language into which it was rendered. Several portions of the Scriptures he had translated into Ger- man before, for the use of the people, viz., the penitential and other Psalms, the Lord's prayer, the Ten Commandments, and other