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 BELGIUM 491 the reform of existing abuses ; but here, as in other parts of his empire, his precipitation placed a lever in the hands of those who opposed his plans, which they used success- fully to excite popular discontent. On Dec. 11, 1789, the opposition, which had manifested itself in a serious revolt, culminated in a move- ment in Brussels against the garrison, which was forced to capitulate. Joseph and his suc- cessor Leopold II. made liberal offers for an adjustment of the differences and for the re- establishment of the constitution ; but the liberal leaders stood out for an independent Belgian republic. Internal dissensions soon threw them into the power of the Austrians again, when Pichegru crossed the frontier, un- der instructions from the French convention, to assist the Belgians. The Austrians were rap- idly driven back, and the Belgians found them- selves incorporated into the French republic, and eventually they became a part of the empire. On Napoleon's abdication in 1814, the country was put under the control of an Austrian gov- ernor, but at the final peace it was united with Holland under Prince William Frederick of Orange-Nassau as king of the new kingdom, called Netherlands, being destined to form a strong bulwark against France. The inclina- tions and habits of the Belgians, which led them to a French alliance, were not consult- ed in this settlement, and their dissatisfaction was aggravated by the unwise policy of the Hollanders, and by the marked differences in national character, language, religion, and pur- suits. In the states general Holland with about 2,500,000 was to have a number of representa- tives equal to Belgium with nearly 4,000,000 of people. Belgium had only a debt of 4,000,000 florins, Holland a debt of 1,200,000,000 ; this was imposed on Belgian industry. The consti- tution which contained all these objectionable provisions was passed by an assembly in which the dissentient Belgian nobility were an actual majority, but the absent Belgians were reckoned as assenting. The use of the French language in judicial and government proceedings was to be abolished. In May, 1 830, disregarding 640 petitions, the government carried a new law of the press. Officials holding Belgian opinions were dismissed. M. de Potter, the head of the Belgian party, opened a subscription for all those who thus suffered for their principles. De Potter and his confidential friends, Tielemans, Bartels, and De Neve, were arraigned for se- dition ; the charge was proved by their private correspondence with each other, and they were banished. The public mind was in a state of excitement, which was raised to its highest pitch of intensity by the revolution of July in Paris. At length, on Aug. 25, 1830, during a performance of Auber's "Masaniello" at the grand opera of Brussels, the insurrectionary spirit was aroused into action by the music. The theatre was rapidly emptied, the office of the National newspaper, the government organ, was sacked, the armorers' shops were broken open, and barricades were erected. The civic guard restored order the next day; but the revolution had spread, and in all the principal cities the same scene was reenacted. On Aug. 28 a congress of citizens assembled in the h6tel de ville of Brussels ; they adopted an address to the king, asking for reform of the system of government, dismissal of the unpopular minis- ters, and trial by jury in criminal prosecutions and proceedings affecting the press. The king received the deputies at the Hague, and re- fused to pledge himself to anything while under menaces of force, but promised an early con- sideration of the matter. This answer gave great dissatisfaction. Subsequently the crown prince was induced to visit Brussels. He held a conference with the leading men of the city, and appointed a committee for redress of grievances. The Liege deputation, however, boldly told the prince that nothing short of total separation from Holland would now pacify the people. The king summoned a states gen- eral extraordinary on Sept. 13, formed a new ministry under De Potter and De Stassart, and then sent troops to Brussels, and called on the rebels to submit. On Sept. 20 the streets of Brussels were rendered completely impassable. Prince Frederick advanced with 14,000 men, and on Sept. 23 attacked the porte de Saar- brftck. After a battle of six hours the troops fought their way through the streets to the palace, and for three days there was an inces- sant engagement, during which the Dutch made themselves masters of the principal part of the city. But the insurgents, receiving reenforce- ments from Liege and other towns, recovered strength, and Prince Frederick's position soon became hopeless. He ordered a retreat ; Brus- sels was free ; Mons, Ghent, Ypres, and all the other leading towns, at once declared in favor of total separation, and on Oct. 6 the Dutch garrison of Liege capitulated. Antwerp was now the only important place which remained in the hands of the Dutch, and even in that city their authority was rapidly crumbling away. Gen. Chasse had thrown himself into the citadel, and the authorities agreed on an armistice. But the insurgent forces repudiated the right of the magistrates to negotiate with the enemy, and summoned Chasse to surren- der. In reply he opened his guns on the quarter of the town in which the revolutionary troops lay, and did much harm to the city, besides destroying a vast quantity of valuable merchandise. A provisional government had been already formed in Brussels, consisting of Baron van Hoogvorst, Charles Rogier, Jolly, Count Felix de Merode, Gendebien, Van de Weyer, Potter, and some others. They ap- pointed the various ministers, summoned a national congress, and settled the basis of a constitution which recognized the monarchical principle. Secretaries Nothomb and Paul De- vaux were directed to prepare a draft of a constitution in accordance with this basis. Prince Frederick went so far as to consent