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The most complete and recent account of the tree is a monograph cited above with maps by Prof. H. Conwentz, who describes at great length the various places where the tree is found and the conditions under which it grows. It is widely distributed throughout most of the woods and forests of Europe, but does not occur in Scandinavia, Holland, or the greater part of Russia, where it is only met with in the southern provinces. It also occurs in the Caucasus, Asia Minor, Syria, and in Algeria, It is found on most geological formations, including granite in the Vosges, gneiss in Siberia, and basalt in Austria; and it prefers a soil rich in humus, Willkomm says that on mountains it is commoner on limestone than on other soils, but the French foresters say that it is practically met with on all soils that are not very dry or very wet. It is a tree of the lowlands and hills, attaining 700 metres altitude near Zurich, 1200 in Herzegovina, and 1900 in the Caucasus, It occurs more or less rarely over all parts of Germany, especially in the north-east, and it attains its maximum size in the royal forest of Osche in West Prussia. The largest tree known to Conwentz was "25 metres high, with a clean stem of 12 metres, and a girth at I metre from the ground of 2 metres." The age of this tree was estimated from the rings in the broken trunk of another tree at 235 years.

The scarcity of the tree, as a rule, cannot be accounted for by any deficiency in reproductive powers, for the fruit is produced in some abundance in good years; and being eaten by many birds and animals, among which the waxwing chatterer, the nutcracker, and the fieldfare are mentioned, the seeds must be widely dispersed, while the freedom with which the roots produced suckers is remarked upon.

The timber seems to be much more highly valued in Germany than here, from 18 to 52 marks per cubic metre being given for it, according to quality, in places where hornbeam is only worth 11 marks. It is very hard and durable, and takes a fine polish like that of maple.

In the Hartz mountains and Thuringia it is known as "Atlasholz," and is much used and valued for furniture making.

The fruit is not so much valued as formerly, when it was sold in Prague and Vienna in the winter at the market, and also in Wurtemburg, under the names of Haspele, Arlesbeere, or Adlsbeere.

Conwentz says that the Latin name torminalis was derived from the Latin word tormina, and given on account of the properties of the fruit, to which one of its names in England, "griping service tree," also has reference.

In Upper Alsace a spirit is distilled from the fruit, which tastes something like Kirschwasser.

Pyrus torminalis does not occur as a wild tree, and is rarely planted in Ireland, Scotland, or the North of England. Its range is from Anglesea and Nottingham southwards. It is known as the service or griping service tree; and in Kent and