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 :reduction, 116
 * rejection of, 121, 138, 140, 164

deduction: Chapter 4
 * formal, 74, 75
 * scientific, 71, 74
 * square of opposition, 80, 81
 * substitution, 77, 79
 * Venn diagrams, 76, 78, 81
 * also see: classification, fallacy, syllogism

dependent variable, 46, 112, 139
 * definition of, 117

deviation, 55, 56 discovery, 17, 46, 139, 157, 162, 169, 173, 178, 179
 * also see: insight

economics, 55, 63, 96 education, scientific, 1, 186, 192 empiricism, see: experiment equation, 6, 150 equipment, see: instruments error, 17, 55, 179
 * checking, 16
 * definition of, 16
 * experimental design and, 18, 29
 * mistake, 16, 17, 20, 71, 72, 86, 88, 102, 138, 139, 144, 151
 * random, 17-19, 22, 23, 28, 36, 56, 118, 122
 * statistics and, 25-30, 32, 56
 * systematic, see: bias
 * value of, 16

ethics, 32, 93, 201, 205, 206 evidence, evaluation of: Chapter 7 evolution, biological, 14, 17, 60, 62, 99, 133, 149, 157, 163, 170, 172, 186, 187, 200, 203, 204, 208, 209 experiment, 12-14, 16-18, 20, 64, 83, 99, 117
 * changes to, 37, 98, 100, 102, 105, 112-116, 118
 * control group, 66, 118, 140
 * control of variables, see: variable – control of
 * definition of, 97
 * diagnostic, see: confirmation and refutation – diagnostic experiment
 * observation process, 131
 * pilot, 102-104
 * pitfalls, 98, 117, 137-141, 178
 * planning, 16, 65, 72, 97, 98, 101, 113, 138
 * replication, see: replication
 * seizing an opportunity, 101
 * troubleshooting, 104, 105, 109, 117

experimental design, 16, 18, 46, 64-66, 70, 79, 98, 100, 110-118, 121, 138-142, 148, 159, 160
 * pitfalls, 137, 138

experimental science, see: science - experimental experimental techniques: Chapter 5 explanation, scientific, see: causality, classification,
 * comparison, concept, correlation

exploration, 9, 14, 105, 109 extrapolation, 18, 19, 51, 53-55, 60, 95, 96 facts, see: data fallacy, 42, 44, 77, 82, 87, 91-96, 134, 156 falsifiability, see: confirmation and refutation falsifiability fraud, 206 freedom, see: academic freedom funding, see: science - funding generalization, 4, 5, 13, 18, 20, 43, 45, 46, 73, 74, 87, 94-96, 127, 134, 136, 147, 156 genetics, 20 genius, see: intelligence geography, 4, 96 geology, 99, 101, 144, 157, 177-179 goals of science, 2, 20, 43, 136, 143, 158, 175, 191, 207, 212 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 130 histogram, 22, 23 history of science, 3-12 history of scientific methods, 3-12 hypothesis
 * confirmation, see: confirmation and refutation – of hypotheses
 * creation of, 10, 12, 14, 42, 44, 46, 99, 143, 148, 156, 176, 177
 * definition of, 13
 * experiment and, 10, 13, 99
 * method defined, 13, 14
 * modification of, 17, 68, 159-162, 165
 * null, 30, 43
 * predictions of, 14, 151
 * refutation of, 10, 14, 42, 64, 94, 156-160
 * reinforcement, 128, 138, 164
 * testing of, 12-14, 30, 46, 64, 66, 68, 71, 72, 74, 86, 89, 90, 100, 111, 123, 124, 138, 146-149, 151, 153, 156-160, 164, 165, 188, 200