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 logical developments, even if they arise from outside one’s specialty, because of the potential for cross-disciplinary applications.

New technology also has potentially serious pitfalls. First, fascination with the new and complex can prevent objective evaluation of a new device’s strengths and weaknesses. For example, as I write this, the most powerful of the supercomputers is the Cray. Many scientists are impressed with results from the Cray. Some claim that anything produced on it must be right, and that its calculations supersede those from other computers. In fact, all computer calculations are subject to the same pitfalls of programming error, rounding error, and invalid assumptions; the supercomputers merely allow faster completion of complex calculations.

Researchers often are faced with a choice between two pieces of equipment: an older and a newer model. Perhaps one already has the older type and is thinking of acquiring the newer version. Usually the newer design uses state-of-the-art technology and therefore is more expensive, more efficient, and more accurate. Will enough experiments be undertaken for the greater efficiency to justify the greater cost? Cost of experimenter time must be weighed against equipment cost. Similarly, one must weigh the option of obtaining more measurements with lower accuracy against that of fewer measurements with greater accuracy. The latter is more aesthetically pleasing but not necessarily the most practical solution, and simple statistical analyses can help in this comparison.

Occasionally investigators choose to design their own apparatus, perhaps because none is commercially available or because personally constructed equipment is more suitable or less expensive than commercial. Almost always, this design and construction takes more time than expected. Yet home-built equipment also has several advantages, such as intimate familiarity by the researcher. Wilson [1952] gives a detailed review of factors to consider when designing and building one’s own equipment.

Whether using old or new equipment, the most frequent equipment pitfall is trusting the equipment. Nearly all equipment needs standards and calibration, regardless of what the manufacturer may imply. The need for calibration is obvious with home-built equipment, but calibration checks are just as necessary for sophisticated, expensive equipment. Indeed, this pitfall is even more insidious with the newer, higher-technology equipment. Digital displays and direct computer interfacing of equipment do not assure reliability.

Precision and accuracy, once determined, cannot be assumed to persist unchanged. Both can be destroyed by equipment malfunction and by subtle changes in the experimental environment. For example, I once subcontracted to another lab for 400 chemical analyses. In examining the data and the replicate measurements of standards, I found that the final 25% of the analyses were worthless. A power cord had been replaced and the equipment was not recalibrated after this ‘minor’ change.

Creating or purchasing some standards, then occasionally running them to confirm equipment performance, takes trivial time compared to the span of routine measurements. In contrast, lack of calibration checks can mean that entire experiments have to be redone. If realization of data unreliability dawns after publication, the setback can affect an entire research discipline.

Prototypes and Pilot Studies
When designing a new apparatus for a suite of experiments, it is usually a good idea to build a prototype first. When beginning a novel type of experiment, it is usually a good idea to do a pilot study first. In both cases, it is tempting to skip this step ‘to increase efficiency’. Skipping this step