Page:Sexism, racism, and nationalism - Factors associated with the 2016 U.S. presidential election results.pdf/3

PLOS ONE With regard to the 2016 election, several studies have found that greater endorsement of sexist beliefs about women was related to voting for Trump (e.g., ). In particular, Bock et al. found that undergraduate students who endorsed greater hostile sexism toward women (post-election) were more likely to have voted for Trump instead of Clinton. In nationally representative samples, greater hostile sexism toward women (pre-election) predicted voting for Trump instead of Clinton. Thus, Clinton’s loss may have been due to gender stereotypes and sexist beliefs about women that deemed her as less competent than a male candidate. Given negative evaluations of women in nontraditional roles (e.g., Clinton running for president), sexism toward women, particularly hostile sexism, might have played a role in voting behavior during the 2016 presidential election. Clinton’s campaign as the first female president may have challenged societal stereotypes and indicated a push toward further equality and against traditional sexist attitudes toward women.

Racism
Some political analysts have argued that the results of the 2016 U.S. presidential election demonstrated the continued presence of racism in the U.S. During the Obama presidency and with the growing diversity of the U.S. population, a portion of White Americans may have felt that their status as the majority was being threatened. Feeling that they were not being represented and that their needs were not being met may have fed into racist sentiments. Trump’s presidential campaign may have appealed to this group by giving voice to their concerns about their place in the country. For example, Trump made several comments during the campaign that were deemed racist (e.g., suggesting that some Mexican immigrants are rapists and criminals) and some of his proposed policies were viewed as instilling racist attitudes (e.g., advocating for a Muslim-specific travel ban; ). With regard specifically to anti-black racism, several individuals, including Clinton, alleged that Trump had previously discriminated against Black renters. Additionally, Trump promoted a conspiracy theory that former President Barack Obama was not a U.S. citizen–a theory some have deemed racist. These issues were raised during the 2016 campaign cycle. Experimental work has demonstrated that presenting information about changing U.S. demographics (i.e., increasing minority group representation) to White individuals who strongly identify with their racial group induces group status threat and increases support for Trump. Thus, Trump’s perceived endorsement of racism and dissatisfaction with Obama’s presidency by status threatened White Americans may have increased support for Trump’s candidacy. Some research has examined the role of racism, particularly Modern Racism, in politics. Since the Equal Rights Movement in the U.S., there has been a significant shift in social norms regarding the open expression of racism (e.g., ). In contemporary times, traditional, overt forms of racism and discrimination are generally not socially acceptable. As such, racism has become more subtle and covert, and old-fashioned measures of racism are generally not valid (i.e., most respondents provide socially desirable answers). Modern Racism is a more subtle form of prejudice that is conceptualized as anti-Black feelings and beliefs that are expressed in such a way that they can easily be concealed or explained away. That is, rather than endorsing overt forms of discrimination and prejudice (e.g., segregation), individuals high in Modern Racism are more likely to support policies that indirectly disadvantage African Americans (e.g., ending affirmative action). Dwyer and colleagues proposed that Modern Racism played a significant role in the 2008 U.S. presidential election. They found that greater Modern Racism was associated with more negative evaluations of Barack Obama and more positive evaluations of Sarah Palin, the Republican vice-presidential candidate. Interestingly, ambivalent sexism toward women did not predict evaluations of Sarah Palin or Barack PLOS ONE