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 Vernadsky in researches on mediaeval and modern science; by Guerrier and Karyeev, Petrov and Buseskul in treatises on former historical conceptions; by Korsh and particularly by Veselovsky in his noteworthy monographs on the genesis and expansion of literary subjects and on the evolution of poetical forms; by Stephani and Kondakov in monumental inquiries into the plastic arts; by Ryedkin and particularly by Chicherin in his voluminous history of political theories. The development of economics attracted the attention of those, who, like Vipper and Petrushevsky, were under the influence of Marxism, and was studied by other historians: Kovalevsky discussed, for instance, the growth of population and represented the economic evolution of Europe down to the rise of capitalism; Tarle attended to the history of the working-classes in its connection with industry in France during the Revolution, and to the continental blockade; Kaufman was interested in credit, currency and banking, particularly in England; Kulisher attempted a general historical survey of economics in Western Europe, and so on. The history of institutions was somewhat less studied: besides Gradovsky and others noted above, Kovalevsky explained the rise and development of political institutions in many European states and the origins of modern democracy; Ostrogorsky cleared up the political forces or parties, which put it in motion; and Ardashev investigated the history of provincial administration in France before the Revolution.

Meantime one of the best representatives of the criticism inaugurated by Kutorga, the learned