Page:Russian Realities and Problems - ed. James Duff (1917).djvu/214

 and some pupils of Gradovsky, the adherents of the classical school Spasovich and Tagantsev, contributed largely to the study of criminal law, and Foinitsky expressed original views on "criminality"; Martens wrote a systematic treatise on international law, conceived in a positive spirit, and trained some pupils: Pilenko studied this subject in a dogmatical spirit and in its connection with private institutions; while Nolde sought to make an historical appreciation of the public and private relations at present subsisting between nations.

This growing independence of Russian thought in the domain of natural and moral sciences was supplemented by an analogous process in historical learning.

The critical historical spirit began to appear in Russia in the 18th century. Baier, one of the first members of the Academy, had gained a reputation by his investigations into some unsettled questions of oriental and Russian history, particularly the origin of the Russian state and the Varyagheans. Somewhat later Schloezer expounded a comprehensive view of the history of Northern Europe and produced a very learned