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 very island, the Scots were enemies, and their queen claimed the English crown. The exchequer was exhausted, most of the forts and castles throughout the kingdom were mouldering into ruins; at sea we had lost much of our ancient reputation, and a too sharp sense of their misfortunes had dejected the whole nation to the last degree."

Happily, Elizabeth was a woman of ability, good education, lofty patriotism, high spirit, devotion to her exalted duties, and something more. Her youth had been stormy, and she had often been the unwilling centre of intrigues, which had taught her much concerning both men and women. She never forgot her early lessons, nor did she fail to apply them. They made her independent and self-reliant; and although she was fortunate in having as able advisers and servants as had ever lent aid to an English sovereign, she trusted, throughout her long reign, first of all to herself; and she deserves, in consequence, the first credit for the many glories and triumphs of the Elizabethan age.

The naval affairs of the time are intermixed, more than those of any other period, with affairs not purely naval. During much of the reign, unofficial warfare, not now very easily distinguishable from piracy, was waged by the queen's subjects against foreign powers; and many of the chief leaders in these operations had been, or were to become, officers in the Royal Navy. Again, queen's ships were, on more than one occasion, employed for purposes of private gain, adventure, or discovery, and were wholly or partially fitted out and maintained at private charges. And still, as previously, vessels and seamen of the merchant marine were frequently used for national purposes. Unusual difficulty is, therefore, experienced in drawing a satisfactory line between the naval operations proper of the reign and those operations which were more particularly adventurous, commercial, exploratory, or piratical. It is hoped, however, that assisted by the references in the notes below, the reader will easily find in Chapter XVI. an account of such expeditions as are not here treated of; since it has been deemed most convenient to confine the present chapter mainly to the consideration of the warlike undertakings of the State, and of those naval events which directly affected, or proceeded from, the national policy.

One of Elizabeth's first cares was for the safety of the Narrow Seas. On November 21st, ere she had been queen a week, she