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Musical æstheticians included from 1832 G. T. Fechner of Leipsic (d. 1887); from 1837 Ferdinand Gotthelf Hand of Jena (d. 1851); from 1838 Gustav Schilling of Stuttgart (d. 1881); in 1854 the Vienna critic Eduard Hanslick (d. 1904); from 1858 Adolf Kullak of Berlin (d. 1862); from 1863 Karl Köstlin of Tubingen (d. 1894); and from 1868 Rudolf Hermann Lotze (d. 1881), then of Leipsic.

As illustrations of the growing attention to detailed analysis may be cited numerous studies (from 1840) by Wagner; many (from 1843) by Berlioz; pamphlets (1845-52) on Bach's cantatas and Matthew Passion by Johann Theodor Mosewius of Breslau (d. 1858); on Bach's Kunst der Fuge by Hauptmann; on various Wagner works (from 1851) and on Field's nocturnes by Liszt; various works (1852-65) on Beethoven's three styles, etc., by Wilhelm von Lenz (d. 1883); on several Wagner works (1853-69) by Franz Muller of Weimar (d. 1876); on Handel's Israel in Egypt (1854) by Hermann Küster (d. 1878); on Beethoven's sonatas and symphonies (1857-8) by 'Ernst von Elterlein' [Ernst Gottschald]; on Schumann's Faust music (1860) by Peter Lohmann of Leipsic (d. 1907); on Mozart's Magic Flute (1862) by Nohl (d. 1885); on Beethoven's piano works (1863) by Marx (d. 1866); on works by Pergolesi, Gluck, etc. (1863-8) by François de Villars (d. 1879); on Beethoven's dramatic writing (1865) by Hermann Deiters (d. 1907), then of Bonn; etc.

Among German critics, besides Schumann and various historians and theorists already named, may be added from 1823 Ludwig Rellstab of Berlin (d. 1860); from 1836 Rudolf Hirsch of Vienna (d. 1872); from about 1850 Ferdinand Hiller of Cologne (d. 1885), and Karl Kossmaly of Stettin (d. 1893); and, chief of all, from 1854 Eduard Hanslick (d. 1904), who became one of the most influential champions of 'absolute music' as against Wagner, Berlioz and Liszt, besides being a valuable historian.

Naturally, a period so replete with artistic and literary production was one in which music-publishing was greatly extended. Among the houses established were in 1838 that of Bote & Bock at Berlin; about 1840 that of Heugel at Paris; in 1846 that of Röder at Leipsic; in 1849 that of Rieter-Biedermann at Winterthur; in 1851 that of Litolff at Brunswick; in 1851 that of Kahnt at Leipsic; and in 1853 that of Augener at London.

229. Summary of the Period.—The development of Germany before the middle of the century was accompanied by an unprecedented dominance of German influences in the musical world. It was in Germany almost alone that really constructive and directive advance took place in composition, technique, theory and scholarship. The apparent exceptions of Chopin and Berlioz are not sufficient to set this statement aside, since the work of both was at once absorbed into the general current of German thought. A recapitulation of the movements of the time, therefore, must chiefly concern those in progress in Germany.