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At St. Petersburg the series consists of Anton Rubinstein (d. 1894), who served in 1862-7 and again in 1887-91, in 1867-71 Nicolai Zaremba (d. 1879), in 1871-6 Michael Asanchewski (d. 1881), in 1876-87 Karl Davidow (d. 1889), in 1892-7 Julius Johannsen (d. 1904), and since 1898 August Bernhardt. At Turin in 1868-82 Carlo Pedrotti (d. 1893) was an energetic organizer, followed now by Giovanni Bolzoni. At Moscow the names are Nicolai Rubinstein (d. 1881), in 1881-3 Nicolai Hubert (d. 1888), in 1883-5 Konstantin Karl Albrecht (d. 1893), in 1885-9 Sergei Tanéjew and since 1889 Wassili Safonow. At Antwerp the first director was Peter Benoît (d. 1901), followed by Jan Blockx.

226. Certain Pedagogical Specialties.—Both within and without the conservatories much enterprise was shown in improving or extending pedagogical organization and method. Into the detail of most of this we cannot here enter. But certain movements deserve mention because of their wide effects.

From 1800 onward, extensive public school systems steadily developed in all the principal countries, and in many cases, especially in Germany and France, urgent advocates appeared for the practice of singing as a part of the ordinary curriculum. The end in view was simply to give enough elementary facility in musical facts and action so that children should grow up with some readiness to use song in common life with ease and delight, but it was also clearly seen that the psychological and moral effects of singing upon the child-mind were valuable. This general movement was not so much directed by musical enthusiasts for the special furtherance of their art as made a part of the new zeal for systematic and well-rounded popular education. But in its gradual development, with the special methods, text-books and literature which it called forth, it came to have decided importance in several countries as a foundation upon which artistic progress could rest.

In Germany this movement was interlocked with that which aimed at the improvement of popular song in church services. From about 1810 there was a marked revival of interest in liturgies in the Lutheran church, and hence congregational singing naturally attracted attention. The parallel interest in such singing in America from about 1820 was slightly connected with this German movement.

Plans for class-instruction in singing raised questions about simplifying musical notation. The close association of the staff-notation with the keyboard had made its development more adapted to the needs of playing than of singing. It was felt