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writing of other kinds, directing artistic attention to the infinite expressiveness possible in narrow limits through the dexterous manipulation of detail.

Reference has already been made to Schubert (secs. 173-174), Mendelssohn (secs. 194-195) and Schumann (secs. 190-191), as well as to earlier composers (sec. 158).

Karl Löwe (d. 1869), born near Halle in 1796, was a trifle older than Schubert, and his artistic production began almost as early (in 1818); but his eminence came later. He was a noted boy-singer, receiving aid in his schooling from Jerome Bonaparte, and having careful instruction from Türk and Naue, besides knowing the famous Reichardt. Though entered at Halle University as a student in theology, before 1820 his passion for music had determined his career. From 1821, on nomination of Zelter, he was town-musician at Stettin, whence he resisted calls to remove, though he made many tours as singer and composer. Disabled by a stroke of apoplexy, he spent his final years at Kiel. He was an industrious composer of oratorios, 5 operas, piano, chamber and orchestral works, but his fame rests on his almost 40 ballades (chiefly 1818-47), of which ''Edward, Der Erlkönig, Heinrich der Vogler, Der Nöck, Harald, Tom der Reimer, Oluf, Prinz Eugen and Odins Meeresritt'' are the most noted. His style has a general kinship with that of Schumann, and the latter doubtless derived something from it. But his union of lyric and dramatic elements and his mastery of compressed tonal expression were highly individual. His style gave a powerful stimulus to the whole range of writing for the solo voice with piano accompaniment.

More closely connected with Schumann was his slightly younger contemporary Volkmann (d. 1883), already emphasized as an instrumental writer (see sec. 214), whose many songs and choral works of varied character are important.

Robert Franz (d. 1892) was born in 1815 at Halle. His musical aspirations were at first checked, but finally found development under Schneider of Dessau. From 1837 he pursued private studies of Bach, Handel and the earlier 19th-century masters to such purpose that in 1843 he stepped forth as one of the finest song-writers of the romantic school, being welcomed by critics as diverse as Mendelssohn, Schumann and Liszt. He now became organist at one of the Halle churches and was later conductor of the Singakademie and director at the university, but increasing deafness and nervous disorders, beginning about 1849, forced his retirement in 1868. By this time his renown had spread so widely that musicians in different countries united in raising a large fund for his support. His songs altogether number about 350, ranging through many subjects and styles, but marked always by extreme beauty of melody, refinement of conception and fullness of detailed finish, uniting in a remarkable degree the older strength of structure with modern expressiveness. He also wrote choral music, sacred and secular, but no instrumental music. He was an expert in the styles of Bach and Handel, and from 1860 prepared remarkably fine revised editions of a long list of their choral works. His musicianship was therefore much broader than his original works would indicate.