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 The more noted organists of the German school were Töpfer of Weimar, (d. 1870), who was also an expert on construction (books from 1833); Ernst Köhler of Breslau (d. 1847); Julius Schneider of Berlin (d. 1885); A. F. Hesse of Breslau (d. 1863); Haupt of Berlin (d. 1891); August Gottfried Ritter of Erfurt and Magdeburg (d. 1885); J. G. Bastiaans of Amsterdam (d. 1875); Wilhelm Volckmar of Homburg (d. 1887); Ludwig Thiele of Berlin (d. 1848); Gustav Rebling of Magdeburg (d. 1902); the Bohemian Josef Krejči of Prague (d. 1881); Johann Georg Herzog of Munich and Erlangen; Jan Albert van Eijken [Eyken] of Elberfeld (d. 1868); Merkel (d. 1885) and K. A. Fischer (d. 1892), both of Dresden. Almost all of these were composers in many other forms besides those suited to the organ.

Among those belonging to the French school were Louis James Alfred Lefébure-Wély (d. 1869); Antoine Édouard Batiste (d. 1876); Félix Alexandre Guilmant; and the Belgians Nicolas Jacques Lemmens (d. 1881) and Alphonse Mailly of Brussels. Mention may also be made of the organ-expert M. P. Hamel of Beauvais (d. after 1870).

For convenience, a few other church musicians who were influential in non-Catholic circles may be here inserted, such as Salomon Sulzer (d. 1890), who, as cantor from 1825 at the chief synagogue of Vienna, became a noted reformer of Jewish music; Gabriel Lomakin (d. 1885), who from 1830 worked fruitfully to promote choral music at St. Petersburg, rearranging and augmenting the treasures of Russian liturgical song; Johann Friedrich Schwencke (d. 1852) and his son Friedrich Gottlieb Schwencke (d. 1896), whose successive terms as organists of the Nikolaikirche at Hamburg, and as composers and editors for the Lutheran service, covered almost 70 years from 1829; and the able teacher Immanuel Faiszt (d. 1894), from 1846 known as an organist and chorus-leader at Stuttgart, from 1859 director of the conservatory there and a conservative composer of vocal and organ works.

Concerning church music in England see sec. 223.

221. Catholic Music.—In a measure analogous to the reactions in other quarters, was the increasing desire among many Catholic church musicians to throw aside the theatric or at least concertistic forms of liturgical music which the 18th century had made prominent. The reaction had two aims—to restore Gregorian song in its historical purity for the detail of the ritual, and to emphasize a cappella polyphony after the Palestrina manner wherever more elaborate music was possible. The centre of this movement was Ratisbon, but sympathizers appeared elsewhere. The full results of the effort were delayed until the next period, when investigation became more searching, and when finally the authorities at Rome took mandatory action to enforce uniformity of practice throughout the Catholic world. Naturally, the reaction encountered opposition from those who had