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and Hanover (1825-9). He was most successful as teacher and composer, writing 4 concertos, many sonatas, rhapsodies, variations, studies, chamber and orchestral music, besides 4 operas, 2 oratorios and church music. His style was dry, but solid.

Karl Czerny (d. 1857), born at Vienna in 1791, was trained by his father and by Beethoven (in 1800-3), besides closely studying the styles of Hummel and Clementi. From before 1810 he won renown as a teacher at Vienna, where he remained throughout his life, exerting a valuable and lasting influence. He was astonishingly productive, writing about 1000 works in literally every class except opera. The most valued are those for teaching purposes, especially Die Schule der Geläufigkeit, Die Schule des Legato und Staccato, etc., which together form a vast instructive apparatus. He was fertile in 'arrangements' of orchestral works, operas and oratorios, being encouraged to such work by Beethoven's comments on his piano version of Fidelio (1805). He also published a brief history (1851) and an autobiography.

Lesser names include Anton Halm (d. 1872), from 1811 working at Vienna, where he was one of Beethoven's circle, with excellent studies, sonatas, piano-trios, other chamber music and a mass; Heinrich Birnbach (d. 1879), from 1814 at Breslau and from 1821 at Berlin, with piano and orchestral works and a manual on composition (1845); and Joseph Christoph Kessler [Kötzler] (d. 1872), from 1820 mostly at Lemberg and Vienna, with many difficult, but useful, studies, etc.

Johann Wenzel Tomaschek (d. 1850) occupies a unique position, though not as well known as he merits. He was born in 1774 at Skuč* (40 m. east of Prague), was a choirboy at Chrudim and Iglau, from 1790 studied law at Prague, but with diligent pursuit of music as well, and in 1799 entered the service of Count Bouquoy as composer. He soon became the leading musician of Prague, recognized as a superior player, training many fine pupils and developing extraordinary power as a composer. In 1798 he received a memorable impetus from hearing Beethoven, and was later favored by the latter's intimacy. His over 100 published works include a concerto, 5 sonatas, 36 eclogues, 6 rhapsodies, 3 ditirambi, 6 allegri capricciosi, some orchestral and chamber works, masses and church works, many songs, cantatas and ballads in Bohemian and German, and 3 operas, as Seraphine (1811). His style was remarkably elaborate, finished and able, placing him close to Beethoven himself. Schumann is said to have been considerably influenced by it. His autobiography (1845) appeared in the periodical Libussa.

181. Violinism and Violinists.—Music for the violin and its relatives at this period shows the same interesting interplay between technical and artistic impulses as music for the piano. On the one hand, we have the specialist's eagerness to extract novel effects from his instrument and make a popular sensation with it. On the other, is the query of the broader musician as to how through it the range, intensity and warmth of expression may be augmented, especially in applying the general ideas of