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devoted to musical drama of the highest class. The opéras comiques at the opening of the 19th century were especially encouraged by two rival enterprises, the more conservative Théâtre Favart and the more radical Théâtre Feydeau, which, after ruinous competition, were united in the Opéra-Comique.

Of the 18th-century opera-writers (see sec. 155) several retained active influence after 1800, especially Grétry (d. 1813), Cherubini (d. 1842), Méhul (d. 1817) and Le Sueur (d. 1837). Of these, Cherubini was obviously the most able, though not characteristically French.

François Adrien Boieldieu (d. 1834) was the founder of the new era in the opéra comique. Born at Rouen and indifferently brought up, he there essayed two operas (1793-5) and many songs that gave him experience and a local name. In 1795 he went to Paris and gradually secured recognition, especially by La famille suisse (1797) and Le Calife de Bagdad (1800). Some graceful piano and chamber pieces won for him in 1800 a place as teacher of piano at the Conservatoire. He profited from contact with Méhul and Cherubini, and kept up diligent study, as was shown by Ma tante Aurore (1803). An unfortunate marriage with a ballet-dancer may have been one occasion for his sudden going in 1803 to St. Petersburg, where he became court-choirmaster, but where, though nominally obligated to produce three operas a year, he accomplished little.

Returning to Paris in 1811, he made hits with one or two old works and especially with Jean de Paris (1812). In 1817 he succeeded Méhul at the Conservatoire, and brought out Le petit chaperon rouge (1818). After an interval, and then in direct competition with the overladen style of Rossini, came his masterpiece, La dame blanche (1825), which scored a phenomenal triumph and still, after hundreds of representations, holds its freshness. In this were combined with utmost skill and elegance naïve melody, strong character-drawing and fine dramatic grouping. His last work, Les deux nuits (1829), was not successful, owing to its libretto, and he gradually succumbed to consumption. In all, he wrote about a dozen operas alone and collaborated with various composers in about as many more. His genius had no great breadth, but his refinement and delicacy of touch were exquisite—a grateful contrast to the noisy showiness of Rossini.

More or less contemporary with Boieldieu and helping forward the movement of which he was finally the leader were the following:—

Henri Montan Berton (d. 1844), the son of P.M. Berton, after slight training, undertook light opera at 17 (1784). From 1795 he was professor of harmony at the Conservatoire and from 1816 of composition. From 1807 he was conductor at the Théâtre Italien. Among his almost 50 operas, many written jointly with others, were Ponce de Léon (1797), Montano et Stéphanie (1799), Le délire (1799), Aline (1803), Françoise de Foix (1809), etc., besides oratorios, cantatas and songs. He was a ready melodist, but superficial in construction. His literary works were many, but not striking. He was bitterly hostile to Rossini.

Rodolphe Kreutzer (d. 1831), the violinist, though of German descent, was born at Versailles and all his life was identified with Paris. From 1790 he