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besides an egotistic work on declamation (1789) and a feeble manual of harmony (1801-2).

Luigi Cherubini (d. 1842) is a difficult figure to classify, since he was originally an Italian of the Italians, but later for more than 50 years identified with musical progress at Paris, since he was most influential as a church composer, though in his middle life (1780-1810) chiefly occupied with opera-writing, and since, finally, the type of his genius allied him more with the best of the Germans than with either Italy or France. He was born at Florence in 1760, where he was first trained by his father, who was cembalist at one of the theatres, but in 1778 went to Sarti at Bologna and was carefully instructed in contrapuntal traditions, beginning some sacred writing. From 1780 he wrote many operas in the prevalent Italian style, so that he is commonly ranked among the Neapolitans, though working in northern Italy. After a sojourn in London (1784-5), he went to Paris. Here, under the influence especially of Gluck's innovations, his operatic style was profoundly changed, becoming far richer, more dignified and more warmly dramatic, and he established himself as one of the ablest leaders in French opera. In 1795 he was made one of the inspectors at the new Conservatoire, but later, under Napoleon, was in less favor, so that for a brief time he betook himself to Vienna (1805-6). Returning to France, he gradually resumed the writing of church music, though not entirely retiring from the opera. In 1815 he paid a notable visit to London. From 1816 he was professor of composition at the Conservatoire, and from 1821 its director, continuing in active service till the year before his death. Of his almost 30 dramatic works the more celebrated were Ifigenia in Aulide (1788, Turin), Lodoïska (1791, Paris), Médée (1797), Les deux journées, called Der Wasserträger in Germany (1800), Anacréon (1803) and Faniska (1806, Vienna). Hardly any of his operas rest upon good librettos, except Les deux journées, and this had much to do with their lack of permanent success. Another blemish is that the wealth of musical ideas in them is often too abundant, so that scenes are too much prolonged and in some cases the whole work. But many of the overtures are classic masterpieces, and the refinement of the themes and the originality of the instrumentation are widely acknowledged. It is notable that in Les deux journées the Italian traditions are completely deserted, in that there are practically none but concerted or chorus numbers throughout. In spite of all qualifications, Cherubini must be considered one of the most potent influences, with those of Gluck and Mozart, in the essential renovation of the opera upon modern lines. (For reference to his work in sacred music, see sec. 163.)

Étienne Nicholas Méhul (d. 1817), born in 1763 in northeastern France and receiving his direction as a musician there and at Paris, under the personal guidance of Gluck, is still more a link between the older French opera and that of the 19th century. He began organ-playing at 10 and sacred composition soon after. In 1778 he went to Paris, where the hearing of Gluck's masterpiece in 1779 and the latter's advice led him to undertake opera, though his first work was not given till 1791. In spite of the political disorders, he scored a series of successes and speedily became one of the most admired composers of the time. In 1795 he was made an inspector at the new Conservatoire and also an Academician. From his more than 30 operas, leading