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232 climate, and some the tropics. That any of these were extinct species was as yet only suspected. Large collections of fossils had now been made, and valuable catalogues, well illustrated, had been published. Something was known, too, of the geological position of fossils. Steno, long before, had observed that the lowest rocks were without life. Lehmann had shown that above these primitive rocks, and derived from them, were the secondary strata, full of the records of life; and above these were alluvial deposits, which he referred to local floods, and the deluge of Noah. Rouelle, Fuchsel, and Odoardi had shed new light on this subject. Werner had distinguished the transition rocks containing fossil remains, between the primitive and the secondary, while everything above the chalk he grouped together, as the "overflowed land." Werner, as we have seen, had done more than this, if we give him the credit his pupils claim for him. He had found that the formations he examined contained each its own peculiar fossils, and that from the older to the newer there was a gradual approach to recent forms. William Smith had worked out the same thing in England, and should equally divide the honor of this important discovery.

The greatest advance, however, up to this time, was that men now preferred to observe rather than to believe, and facts were held in greater esteem than vague speculations. With this preparation for future progress, the second period in the history of paleontology, as I have divided it, may appropriately be considered at an end.

Thus far, I have said nothing in regard to one branch of my subject, the methods of paleontological research, for, up to this time, of method there was none. We have seen that those of the ancients who noticed marine shells in the solid rock called them such, and concluded that they had been left there by the sea. The discovery of fossils led directly to theories of how the earth was formed. Here the progress was slow. Subterranean spirits were supposed to guard faithfully the mysteries of the earth; while above the earth. Authority guarded with still greater power the secrets men in advance of their age sought to know. The dominant idea of the first sixteen centuries of the present era was, that the universe was made for man. This was the great obstacle to the correct determination of the position of the earth in the universe, and, later, of the age of the earth. The contest of astronomy against authority was long and severe, but the victory was at last with science. The contest of geology against the same power followed, and continued almost to our day. The result is still the same. In the early stages of this contest there was no strife, for science was benumbed by the embrace of superstition and creed, and little could be done till that was cast off. In a superstitious age, when every natural event is referred to a supernatural cause, science can not live; and often as the sacred fire may be kindled by courageous,