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280 contained. But contrary action produces contrary effects, and consequently our own misery, among that of others."

This reduction of the several Laws of Nature to a single ultimate one, regarding conduct on the part of the individual that shall conduce to the common weal, is shown by the author to be useful in a double way: (1) it is easier to remember (sic) one principle than many; and (2) "a certain rule or measure is afforded to the prudent man's judgment, by the help whereof he may ascertain that just measure in his actions and affections in which virtue consists." This is eminently characteristic. The author's aim is practical throughout. If he attempts to rationalize morality, to give a scientific explanation and justification of the existing moral code, it is in order that his work may prove an important help to right living. It is probable that Cumberland, like some contemporary writers, considerably exaggerates the 'practical' value of correct ethical theory.

The relation between Cumberland's Laws of Nature and Cudworth's Eternal Truths should be noticed. How shall we distinguish the so-called 'practical principles' which we have been considering, from others equally ultimate, e.g., those of mathematics? We say that the former 'oblige' us; the latter not,—but why? Simply by reason of the nature of the effects, according to Cumberland. We can afford to disregard many, at least, of the truths of geometry; not so the moral law, for our happiness,—and, as the author shows later, even our preservation,—depends upon our observance of it. The criterion, then, is frankly that of 'consequences,'—a fact that must be borne in mind. But these 'consequences,' in part, at least, are not arbitrary. "The happiness of each individual (from the prospect of enjoying which, or being deprived of it, the whole sanction is taken) is derived from the best state of the whole system, as the nourishment of each member of an animal depends upon the nourishment of the whole mass of blood diffused through the whole." Now the actions which, by virtue of their own 'natural' force and efficacy, are