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250 and how it affects animal life, in no way concerns our argument here, for instinct is at least in contrast with thought and sense of duty. It disposes the animal to act, as well as fits it for doing so; instinct may even be periodic, as in the nesting season, when we have the singing of birds, in contrast with more advanced summer, when energy goes to something else than song. Everything warns us of our error, if we attribute animal action to moral impulse.

Extending observation to the general laws under which all animal life is placed, we contemplate "gratis benefits to offspring, and earned benefits to adults." These represent two phases of the dependence of animal life, with the double provision nature has made for supply of want. The dependence is on parental care first, on environment next ; the supply is through maternal instinct first, through individual struggle afterwards. The facts are certain, the difficulty is to see "the ethical aspect of the principles." We readily recognize the laws, and, with the aid afforded us by Darwin and his followers, we can trace on a large scale the effects of their application. But there is not any indication of reference to law, or purpose, or obligation, or merit, on the part even of the higher vertebrates; and in absence of this we can speak only of natural laws, not of ethical principles, nor even of "ethical aspects" of these principles, unless we rise to deal with the moral government of the world as determined and maintained by the moral governor himself. Animal necessities we can see clearly; animal benefits we can reckon up accurately; but animal ethics we cannot find even in faintest outline. The weakest life dies off; the completest survives, and contributes to the advance of the species; but the laws applicable are physical, not ethical.

If we judge of things by reference to our emotions, it will be apparent that we do not escape a sense of antipathy, even in contemplating the application of physical law. We may hesitate as to our expression of antipathy, when it concerns what we own to be a law of Nature; but our vindication is this, that Nature has implanted in us the shrinking we feel, as we consider animal suffering, and large destruction of animal life. As