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Schelling, Friedrich (1775–1854), a German philosopher of the period of reaction. Attempted to build up a system which would embody all Nature; but, partly from want of a knowledge of natural science, and partly from preconceived ideas, stranded in metaphysics.

Séguin, Marc (1786-1875), French engineer. Was the first to measure the mechanical equivalent of heat.

Shaman is the name given to sorcerers by the different populations of Northern Asia. They are supposed to deal with the dark forces of Nature. By their incantations and dances they are supposed to conjure illness and all sorts of misfortunes.

Smith, Adam (1723–1790), English economist and philosopher; founder of Political Economy as a science based on observation and on the inductive methods, which he developed in his classical work, "The Wealth of Nations." In that work he considered wealth as the product of labour, and criticised the many obstacles which Governments at that time put in the way of the growth of industry and commerce—thus becoming the founder of the so-called "Liberal school" of Political Economy. In a far less known, very much boycotted, and yet very deep work, "The Theory of Moral Sentiments," he wrote a full theory of Ethics based on the common observations of mutual sympathy.

Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903), English philosopher who developed a full system of synthetic philosophy on a materialistic basis, embodied in the following works: "First Principles," "Principles of Biology," "Principles of Psychology," "Principles of Sociology," "Ethics." Also "The Man versus the State"; an excellent little work on Education; a polemics against Weismann upon the direct action of surroundings and natural selection; and so on. In his "Principles of Biology" he developed a full theory of evolution, based chiefly on the lines of Lamarck's "Transformism," i.e., on the direct action of the surroundings modifying the organisms in the sense of adaptation to their surroundings ("direct adaptation"),—natural selection ("the indirect adaptation") only coming in to aid the preservation of the best adapted ("survival of the fittest"), and to give stability to the acquired adaptation.

Thierry, Augustin (1795–1856), a renowned French historian, who combined an admirable descriptive talent with a deep study and comprehension of the primitive institutions of the so-called "barbarian" period. His "Letters on the History of France" give the best key to a comprehension of this period, and of the subsequent period of independent city-republics in France. He also wrote a history of the Norman Conquest of England.

Vogt, Karl (1817–1895), Swiss naturalist and politician, professor of geology and zoology. Took part in the Revolution of 1848 in Germany. Author of several purely scientific works, and an excellent populariser. Materialist and follower of Darwin after the appearance of "Origin of