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systematic controls and restrictions in accordance with Marxist theory. Artists and writers were subsequently unionized, mainly within the state-controlled Creative Artists Union and the various writers' and journalists' unions, and for the most part they received their salaries from state institutions and publishing houses. Repression and control reached its peak in the period immediately preceding and following the death of Stalin in 1953. Besides imposing "socialist realism" and "administrative measures," such as police interference and censorship, the regime denied writers and artists the Western cultural influences that had nurtured them in the past. In Slovakia, the struggle against "bourgeois nationalism" resulted in the arrest of several prominent intellectuals, including Gustav Husak, the present party leader. During the cultural thaw in the mid-1950's, writers and artists sought a more liberal attitude on the past of the regime, but there was no unrest comparable to the uprisings in Poland and Hungary in 1956. A limited relaxation of restrictions permitted the importation of some contemporary Western literature and films, and some artists began to shun socialist realism and follow the lead of avant-garde artists in the West. However, the campaign beginning in June 1958 to complete the development of a socialist state brought a restoration of ideological restrictions that prevailed until the 12th Party Congress in December 1962, when party boss Novotny reluctantly abandoned some of his repressive controls.

The Fourth Congress of the Czechoslovakian Writers' Union in June 1967 marked the beginning of a true liberalization drive by a significant number of intellectuals: many speakers ignored the party's planned program, and attacked the regime's political and cultural policies. Novotny's failure either to crush the opposition of the intellectuals or to initiate reforms that would satisfy at least some of their demands was a key factor in his downfall the following January. Subsequently, during the 8 months of the Prague Spring, almost every aspect of Czechoslovak culture flourished. Censorship was ended and free expression was permitted. Czechoslovak writers and artists were allowed greater contact with their colleagues in other countries, and national culture was again exposed to Western influences. The creative artist in Czechoslovakia explored to a greater degree the techniques, methods, and theories that formerly were officially denied him: ideological neutralism, "ideal-less" light entertainment, formal experimentation, "cosmopolitanism," symbolism, abstractionism, "art for art's sake," and similar "bourgeois ideologies and elements."

A new period of cultural repression began after Dubcek's fall and Husak's acquisition of power. Prominent artists were dismissed from their jobs and unions, and eventually from the party to complete their professional and social ostracism. Some were jailed. In late 1970 the regime drafted legislation designed to complete the state's control over cultural institutions. A new theater law was drawn up providing for government support for theaters producing "politically involved" (pro-Communist) plays and for staging works by authors from the Soviet Union and other Communist nations. A state-controlled music program was implemented, with emphasis on youth education. However, noting a decline in cultural standards in 1972-73, the regime has tried to reintegrate into the unions talented but alienated artists, who must prove themselves through "committed" works. To date, few respected intellectuals have responded. Instead, denied freedom of expression, artists revert to subdued cynicism, using satire, derisive humor, bitter allegory, innuendoes, and disrespectful allusions.

1. Literature

According to official itnerpretation, contemporary literature is the offspring of the socialist revolution. In fact, however, the roots of Czechoslovak literary tradition are found in religion and nationalism, and are strongly influenced by Western European traditions as well. The first literature, the translation of scripture into old Slavonic by the missionaries Cyril and Methodius appeared in the ninth century. High quality illuminated manuscripts, combining art and literature, became a primary form of cultural expression in the Middle Ages, and religious dramas were also part of the literary heritage until the 14th and 15th centuries when the writings of Jan Hus, Petr Chelcicky, and Thomas of Stetny on moral and religious questions appeared. The translation of the Kralice Bible, published in the 16th century, was the culmination of religious prose and became a model for classical Czech. Religious upheavals in the 17th century brought a literary decline although Jan Komensky (Comenius), in exile, wrote philosophical works in Latin and Czech.

The nationalistic and Western European roots of Czechoslovak literature developed in the 18th and 19th centuries. The most famous literary figure of that time was Frantisek Palacky, who wrote extensively on the nationality question and the concept of a national past. Called the "Father of the Nation," Palacky is best remembered for his The History of the Czech Nation, which is regarded as a classic. Other noted

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