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indicated in the following distribution of post elementary school enrollments by sex during the 1971/72 school year, women predominate in the secondary schools (in percent):

The high proportion of male students in apprentice schools reflects the chronically tight manpower situation which necessitates the early induction of males into the labor force, especially in the industry and construction sectors. Males prevail in the process of selection of full-time higher education, but their relatively high proportion of all part-time students reflects the need to keep them on the hob. Male predominance in higher education is based mainly on the high proportions they contribute to the engineering and agricultural schools; women outnumber them in most departments of the universities, notably in pedagogy, medicine, the social sciences, and philosophy.

During the post-World War II period the pupil/teacher ratio in the elementary school system improved significantly from 27.5 pupils per teacher in 1955/56 to 19.9 in 1971/72 and in the latter academic year represented the best in Europe alongside Sweden, Hungary, Norway, and Denmark. At the secondary level the ratio—consistently a favorable one throughout the 16-year period—improved from about 19 to about 16. The combined ratio of professors, docents, and instructors to matriculants in institutions of higher learning improved from 10.1 to 8.0.

G. Artistic and cultural expression (U/OU)

Although Czechoslovakia in the past has had a rich and creative cultural tradition, based on freedom of expression, contemporary artistic life is controlled by the state for its purposes. According to official policy all cultural activity must serve the cause of building communism and "the revolutionary rebirth of society," and contribute to the development of "socialist man." The concept of "art for art's sake" is an alien one, and frequently books, paintings, musical compositions, or other art forms not conforming to official ideology are banned.

As it relates to cultural expression, official ideology, modeled on that of the Soviet Union, is embodied in the concept of "socialist realism," which limits the writer or artist to expressing the party line, to portraying the party as the guiding force of all positive activity, and to creating works that would be vehicles for socialist ideas and comprehensible to the people. Basically a political tool, art must appeal to the tastes of the working man, and expression must be simple and direct. The results have been stagnation of creative artistic initiative and dull uniformity. Consequently, some artists have chosen inactivity or exile. Nonetheless, a significant number of works, as well as performing artists, are internationally acclaimed. In these instances, token recognition is accorded to official policy while more artistic and "bourgeois" themes are developed.

To implement its cultural policy, the regime has developed an extensive control apparatus. Cultural policy is created by the party and administered by the Ministry of Interior, the Ministries of Culture of the two Republics, and the relevant professional organizations. These various professional groups or unions, working closely with the party, are the main vehicles of control; they enforce standards of artistic expression, act as representative bodies for their memberships, set salary scales, and establish professional qualifications for employment. The unions also operate housing facilities, stores, and vacation resorts for their members. Membership in the unions is a prerequisite for effective artistic and intellectual expression since only members may be employed and their works published, performed, or exhibited. Expulsion from the union, usually caused by deviation from cultural policy, effectively ends an artist's career within his own country.

As a part of its cultural policy, the government emphasizes certain past cultural traditions, and praises and rewards selected contemporary intellectuals and cultural figures who have shown political loyalty and professional achievement. The state also supports theatrical groups, dance troupes, and musical ensembles. To encourage mass participation in cultural life, admission is either free or nominal. In addition, ancient castles, churches, and other historic buildings are preserved as national museums: 437 such institutions existed in 1969.

Since the Communist takeover in 1948, Czechoslovak cultural life has been characterized by alternate periods of relaxation and suppression. The free atmosphere that had nourished the development of cultural and intellectual life in the prewar period vanished after February 1948 with the imposition of

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