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 If the property was obtained through wrongdoing, it must be surrendered, the common good requiring that nobody should benefit by his own theft or fraud. Theologians are practically agreed on this, and that restitution must be made to the poor or to religious purposes; but when they inquire further into the reason for the doctrine they are divided in opinion. Some maintain that it is grounded on the positive law of the Church which expressly provided that what has been unjustly obtained by usury or simony must be given to the poor or to pious causes, and the same decision has been extended to similar cases. On this ground they explain the action of the Church, which sometimes grants compositions for just cause to debtors whose creditors are uncertain. Other theologians with greater probability teach that the doctrine rests on natural law, which the Popes interpreted and applied to gains made by usury and simony. For natural law requires that nobody should benefit by his own wrongdoing, so that restitution must always he made of ill-gotten goods. If restitution cannot be made to the individual owners, partly by interpreting their personal wish, partly because if the property is usefully expended on the poor in their behalf they will benefit spiritually by it, partly because inasmuch as the community is wronged by theft, restitution must be made to the community, and this is done by choosing the poor or religious objects; the obligation is satisfied by restoring to these.

1. We have already seen what must be restored in the case of one who is in possession of another's property, or in case of unjust damnification to another. In general, the damage inflicted is the measure of the restitution to be made, for justice requires that the owner should have back his own. When there were several who co-operated in injustice a special difficulty arises as to whether each and all are jointly or severally bound to make restitution. If two thieves assist each other to break into and rob a house, what are the obligations of each of them with respect to the restitution to be made?

2. In such cases as this each must, of course, make restitution for the harm which he personally and immediately caused. If each one takes his share and makes reparation for that