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 NEW BOOKS. 475 of the Greek Church, and thus is well equipped for the history of theo- logical ethics which occupies the greater portion of these volumes. The last published Part includes rather more than the title appears to indicate. Professing to treat only of the 18th and 19th centuries, it gives some account of the philosophical as distinguished from the theological ethics of the 17th century (the exclusively theological ethics of the 16th and 17th centuries being treated in the preceding Part). The objection may also be made that it is not concerned with exclusively Christian ethics ; that since all the more important ethical philosophers of modern times, whatever their attitude towards Christian theology, are treated of at greater or less length, the volume might seem to require a different title. This would be the contention of Prof. Ziegler, for example, whose volume on Christian Ethics (noticed in MIND No. 45, p. 146) is referred to in terms of praise by Dr. Gass. There is much to be said for the plan of closing that part of the work with the rise of Humanism, in order to mark that from that period Christianity " ceases to be everything ". Dr. Gass, however, has guarded against this objection. Modern philosophy, he contends, is as a whole cor- rectly described as "Christian" because it has sprung up on Christian ground, and because in modern times there has been constant reciprocal action between theology and philosophy. His own view is that theological and philosophical ethics tend to a final harmony ; his theological position being that of liberal Protestantism. Vol. i. begins with a prefatory section (pp. 1-48) consisting (after a brief introduction) of two chapters on "An- cient Ethics" (Socrates and Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, Neo-Platonism) and " Biblical Ethics ". It is then divided as follows : Section i. " The Age before Constantino" (pp. 49-107) ; ii. "The 4th to the 8th Century" (pp. 108-241) ; iii. " First Period of the Middle Age : 8th to llth Century" (pp. 242-68) ; iv. " Second Period of the Middle Age : 12th and 13th Cen- turies " (pp. 269-367) ; v. " Third Period of the Middle Age : 14th and 15th Centuries " (pp. 368-457). The last chapter of this section (pp. 437-57, " Voices out of Byzantine Theology ") describes the ethical doctrine of some representatives of the Greek Church, The contents of the first part of vol. ii. have already been indicated in the last number. Both parts of this volume are divided according to subject rather than chronology. Section i. (pp. 1-96) of part ii., for example, is entitled " The Pre- Kantian Develop- ment," but brings down its account of English moralists (in chap, i.) from Hobbes to Prof. Sidgwick, Mr. Spencer and Mr. Stephen, and its account of French moralists (in chap, ii.) from Malebranche to Comte. The rest of the volume, from chap. iii. of this section to the end of the book, is con- cerned exclusively, or almost exclusively, with German writers, theological and philosophical. The author's general conclusion is that the distinctive ideas of ancient and Christian ethical systems have first been put in their true relations as a consequence of the development from the Reformation onwards. The character of the morality of the Gospel as distinguished from pagan morality consists in the demand that man should not only ad well but be good. " The last stage of the development of the Christian character is "holiness," in which "morality" and "piety" are united, so that " the old conflict of autonomy and heteronomy can no longer exist ". Historically, ancient ethics, in its effort to express morality systematically, started from the conception of " virtue ". The conception of " duty " and " law " was added afterwards. Scholasticism, proceeding, so far as it aimed at scientific form, from ancient ethics, developed its ethical doctrine as a theory of virtue and vice. Protestantism brings the conceptions of " virtue" and "duty" together and puts them in various relations, till at length they are seen to be co-ordinate. There can be no " collision of virtues ". All casuistry arises on the ground of "duty ". Conflicts of duties are to be