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 Castles of England at the Conquest, 45 respect and confidence by the surrounding tenantry. It is surprising to find how completely the leading positions in the country had thus been occupied. The upland passes ; the margins of the rivers ; the summits, where readily accessible, of the detached hills ; the spots rendered strong by cliffs or ravines, or extended or impracticable marshes. Each had its aiilay where a succession of lords had identified themselves with their people, afforded them protection, and received in return their support. Such were Guildford, Farnham, and Berkhampstede, in the clefts of the belt of chalk by which London is girdled ; Hertford, Bedford, Wallingford, Tamworth, Worcester, Shrewsbury, Durham, and York, upon the banks of deep or rapid streams ; Windsor, Belvoir^ Lincoln, Corfe, and Montacute, placed on the summit of more or less detached hills, commanding a broad sweep of country ; Dover, Scarborough, and Bamborough, upon rugged and lofty sea-cliffs, isolated by deep and formidable ravines ; Huntingdon, Cambridge, Ely, and Oxford, more or less covered by marshy fens at that time almost impassable ; while attached to and so placed as to overawe their adjacent cities or towns were such fortresses as Exeter, Leicester, Winchester, Chester, Chichester, Taunton, York, Norwich, and Nottingham. Each, including many that belonged to the Crown, represented an English estate. To many of them military service had long been paid ; and now into them the knights and barons from Normandy and the lieutenants and governors for the Crown were inserted. So far, the policy was sound and promised to be suc- cessful ; but when the new lords began to build castles of stone they became obnoxious to both sovereign and people. The possessor of a strong castle was ever ready for rebellion, and was not uncommonly a tyrant even to his own people^ of whom this made him independent : hence, castles properly so called, — buildings in masonry, — were hated by both king and people. The old-fashioned resi- dence, half mansion, half fortress, formed of earth and timber or at best of a rude kind of masonry, such as Scott more by intuition than inquiry attributes to the Saxon Cedric, was strong when held by brave men in sufficient numbers for a short time; but under ordinary circumstances it could easily be attacked, and set on fire. These fortified residences were out of fashion with the Normans, and fell into disuse. The English lords were of the same immediate lineage with their tenants ; and if they occasionally squeezed them, they did it as a man squeezes