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8 pastures without the aid of the large supply of food which would be yielded even to the rudest agriculture. The village communities of the East remain instructive examples of the patriarchal type of life; the stereotyped condition of China exhibits the features of a remote civilisation. These great differences in wealth are partly due to physical causes, but they mainly depend upon social circumstances, and as far as they do so, form the appropriate topics of political economy. The mind of an Englishman so habitually contemplates progress, that it is difficult to keep in view how large a portion of the habitable globe is in an absolutely stationary condition. It is the duty of the political economist to explain not only the conditions which determine progress in national wealth, but also the causes which tend to make the material state of a country either stationary or retrogressive.

It is even at the present day important to direct careful attention to an erroneous conception of wealth, which was universal until the appearance of Adam Smith's great work in 1775. The error when once exposed may appear incapable of misleading a child; yet no error was ever more tenaciously clung to. It not only corrupted speculative science, but it infected the whole commercial policy of every European nation. These errors are associated with the policy which has received the name of the mercantile system. The essence of the mercantile system was to identify wealth with money. Now the use of money is one of the first signs which marks a nation's progress from barbarism towards civilisation. Societies even comparatively rude must be impressed with the necessity of adopting some medium of exchange. This will be readily understood by a cursory glance at the general functions which money fulfils. In the first place, money provides a measure by which to record the value of each commodity. If, for instance, it is known that a sack of wheat is worth twenty shillings, the value of the sack of wheat, compared with any other article, can be at once ascertained when the price of this last article is known. Money, moreover, is not only a universal measure of value, but is also a universal medium of exchange. A man may possess a store of wheat which