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 directly, that is to say without external assistance, when it is a question of going down the scale again, in the case of heat.

3. Heat a Degraded Form of Energy.—We have seen that thermal energy is not directly transformed into chemical energy. There is yet another restriction in the case of this thermal energy if we study the laws which govern the circulation and the transformations of thermal energy; and the most important comes from the impossibility of transporting it from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature. On the whole, and because of these restrictions, thermal energy is an imperfect variety of universal energy, or, as the English physicists call it, a degraded form.

4. ''Simple Transformations of Electrical Energy. Its Intermediary Rôle.''—On the other hand, electrical energy represents a perfected and infinitely advantageous form of this same universal energy, and this explains the vast development of its industrial applications within less than a century. It is not that it is better known than the others in its nature and in the secret of its action. On the contrary, there is more dispute than ever as to its nature. To some, electricity, which is transported and propagated with the speed of light, is a real flux of the ether as was taught by Father Secchi, who compared it to a current of water in a pipe. It would do its work, just as the water of the mill does its work by flowing over a wheel or through a turbine. Electricity, like water in this case, would not be an energy in itself, but a means of transporting energy.

To others, such as Clausius, Hertz, and Maxwell, it is not so; the electric current is not a transport of