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Rh was given a lower place; 'Abdullah ibn Sa'd was made Amīr of all Egypt. The new governor conquered Nubia and gave the Christians of that land a document of protection, with conditions, which is a good specimen of the terms Moslems gave to Christian ḏimmis.

The Patriarch Benjamin died in 639, and was succeeded by Agatho (659-677). He converted many Gainites (p. 220) to normal Monophysism, and rebuilt the great church of St. Mark at Alexandria. Then came John III (677-686). 'Abdu-l'Azīz suddenly demanded a hundred thousand pieces of gold from him, and burned his feet with hot coals till he paid all he could raise — ten thousand pieces.

There is no object in naming all the Coptic Patriarchs who succeeded to this ill-fated throne, who, one after another, bore torture and disgrace to make them pay enormous sums, claimed without the shadow of an excuse by the tyrant. A few specimens of the way the Copts were treated during this dreadful time will be enough. Persecution was always latent, constantly broke out. In the time of Isaac (686-689) a deputation came from "India" asking him to ordain a bishop for that land. This is interesting, as being, apparently, the first relation between the Malabar Christians and Monophysites (see p. 360). Alexander II (703-726) was twice branded with hot irons and was mulcted of six thousand pieces of gold. At this time there was a fearful persecution. 'Abdu-l'Azīz had a census of all monks made, imposed a special tax on them, and forbade anyone in future to become a monk. The Khalif 'Abdu-lMalik (692-705) made his own son 'Abdullah governor of Egypt. 'Abdullah levied enormous taxes on all Christians, which he then doubled and trebled. He despoiled and ruined churches, branded strangers on the face or hand. Enormous numbers of Copts died of starvation. His successor, Kurrah ibn Sharik, continued the same extortions. These two "brought on Christians evils such as they had never before suffered." Under Kurrah a great number of Copts tried to