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"Men are very apt to run into extremes. Hatred of England may carry some into an excess of confidence in France, especially when motives of gratitude are thrown into the scale. Men of this description would be unwilling to suppose France capable of acting so ungenerous a part. I am heartily disposed to entertain the most favorable sentiments of our new ally and to cherish them in other to a reasonable degree. But it is a maxim founded on the universal experience of mankind that no nation is to be trusted further than it is bound by its own interest; and no prudent statesman or politician will venture to depart from it."―George Washington.

Could the Americans have achieved their independence single-handed? Fortunately, Great Britain had aroused the jealousy and the opposition of the three great powers of western Europe: France, Spain, and the Netherlands. France came to the aid of the Americans directly and the other two indirectly. All three assisted, however, not so much because of sympathy for the rebels in the English colonies as because of their united hatred of England.

The English had long been winning competitors with the Dutch for the Baltic and the east India trade. In 1651 the British navigation act declared that foreign vessels could bring to England only such goods as were produced in their own country. The enforcement of this act cause two wars with the Dutch resulting in victory for the English. The Dutch had to give up their promising colony of New Amsterdam and their merchant marine had to assume a definitely second rank. During the Seven Years' War England had extended the contraband list greatly and had refused to recognize the principle that free ships make free goods as provided in the treaty of December 1, 1674.

England had repeatedly humbled the proud position of