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UNIVERSITY century granted the University of Paris the right to endow its graduates with the power to teach anywhere. The degree of bachelor, borrowed from the terms used in knighthood and indicating an imperfect or partial graduate, that is, one who had finished only the lowest stage of university work, was first introduced at the University of Paris in the i3th century. The colleges, as the different schools connected with a university are called, at first were mere boarding-halls, which were later appropriated to the faculties of different departments.

Europe has about 100 universities, the oldest being the University of Paris, which was organized in the 12th century but was not called a university until the 13th century. It had two chancellors, and gave degrees, those of doctor and master at first being the same, but afterward the degree of master was given to those who were qualified to teach the arts and that of doctor to those who could teach theology, law or medicine. The (q.v.) was the theological school of this university, which was suppressed by the convention in 1793, but was revived by Napoleon I as the University of France, which has charge of all public instruction. The “Academy” of Paris has five faculties: law, medicine, theology, science and letters. It usually has 4,000 students. The University of Bologna, with its charter given by Frederick Barbarossa in 1158, was especially celebrated for its law-schools; and that of Salerno, of the 12th century, for its instruction in medicine. Women were admitted to both, and graduates of Salerno practiced as “lady physicians” in the 12th and 13th centuries. Italy has twenty-one universities; Germany twenty-one; England ten; Ireland two; Scotland four; and there are about thirty in all the other countries of Europe. The oldest universities in Germany are Heidelberg, Leipsic, Tübingen, Jena and Halle. The German universities are governed by the professors, presided over by a rector or chancellor. There are three grades of professors, called ordinary professors, extraordinary professors and privats-docent. The ordinary professors are the highest class, and are elected by the government from candidates chosen by the faculty, and give lectures on the subject which they are selected to teach. The extraordinary professors have smaller salaries, and can lecture on any subject they please, as may also the privat-docent. The student attends any lectures he chooses, but cannot practice any profession without a certain course of university study. Göttingen University, founded in 1734 by Baron Munchausen under the auspices of George II, king of England and elector of Hannover, was one of the most famous in Europe, having over 3,000 students until that at Berlin was founded in 1810. The

University of Tübingen, dating back to 1478, with seven faculties, is noted as having once been the seat of what is called the Tübingen school of theology. The Universities of Berlin and Bonn are among the most prominent in Germany, that at Berlin having about 6,570 students and 471 professors. Heidelberg University has a professorship of English literature, established in 1873, the first of the kind in Germany. The German universities are under the control of the government, and most of them are dependent upon state appropriations. The universities of Switzerland, Holland, Belgium, Russia and Austria are on the German model. That of Prague, founded in 1348, is the oldest in central Europe. Louvain, founded in 1425, was once very famous, as was also the University of Leyden, founded by William of Orange. Spain has nine universities, and Portugal one. The University of Salamanca, established in 1415, had at one time 10,000 students and 28 colleges. The oldest Scandinavian university is at Upsala in Sweden, and there is one at Christiana in Norway, with another at Copenhagen in Denmark.

Of the four English universities, Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest, dating back to the 13th century. Those of Durham and London are modern, being founded in the 19th century. The University of London has no colleges directly connected with it, but confers degrees, upon examination, to students of nearly all the institutions of learning in the country. Oxford has twenty-three colleges and Cambridge eighteen. This college system distinguishes the universities of England from those of the continent. A student must connect himself with a college before he becomes a member of the university. The teaching in these colleges is done almost entirely by tutors, and the professors of the university only deliver lectures on special subjects once or twice a week. Degrees are dependent upon examinations, and fellowships are provided, by means of which promising students can continue their advanced studies for years. The Scottish universities are at Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and St. Andrews, that of St. Andrews being the oldest. They were patterned more after the German universities than those of England. The students were divided into four nations, named from the parts of Scotland from which they came. The University of Edinburgh has but one college, but this has all the powers of a university. The University of Dublin has only one college, Trinity College, but several faculties, including those of oriental and modern languages, mining and civil engineering. Queen's University has three colleges, at Belfast, Cork and Galway, each called Queen's College, and the governing body