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TURKS

1957

TURNER

followed by horrible massacres of men, women and children by Turkish soldiers. These atrocities aroused all Europe. On account of them England could not now befriend Turkey, and Russia, having secured the neutrality of Austria by giving her permission to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina on certain conditions, declared war against Turkey in 1877. After a bloody contest Plevna, the Turkish stronghold, fell, and the Russo-Turkish War was ended by the peace of 1878. This changed the map of European Turkey greatly, Rumania, Montenegro and Servia becoming independent. Bulgaria north of the Balkans was erected into a principality under Turkish protection. Southern Bulgaria, called East Rumelia, was left to Turkey, but in 1885 it was united to northern Bulgaria, while Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austrian control. A portion of Armenia, including Batum, was taken by_ Russia. Beginning with 1895, the Armenians were subjected to the most terrible oppression by their Turkish masters, who feared an uprising to revive the ancient Armenian monarchy and were also determined to crush the Armenian faith. These oppressive measures were resisted by their victims, who were at once punished by torture and death. In 1895 and 1896 systematic massacres of the Armenians were carried out by the Turks, in which over 2,500 villages were obliterated, about 21,000 people murdered, and thousands left starving and shelterless. It is believed that the sultan had tacitly consented to the extermination of his Armenian subjects, which would doubtless have followed, save for the warning interposition of the European powers, compelled by the outraged public opinion of Christendom. In 1896-7 Crete (q. v.) revolted, Greece attacking Turkey but being defeated, and Crete gained self-government, though under Turkish control. Macedonia revolted in 1903, but was unsuccessful in securing the sorely needed reforms. In 1908, Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria proclaimed absolute independence, and Crete demanded to be incorporated politically with Greece. On July 24, 1908, the sultan was forced by Turkish reformers to grant a constitutional government, and later to abdicate in favor of his brother, who was made Mehmed V. Owing to disorders in Tripoli and ill treatment, as she claimed, of Italian subjects, Italy declared war on Turkey Sept. u, 1911, and, as part of the terms of peace concluded Oct. 18, 1912, practically annexed the Tripolian province of Libya. Then came the Balkan War (q. v.) which drove Turkey out of Europe with the exception of Constantinople, Adrian-ople and adjoining territory.

Turks, a race of people belonging to the Turanian family, who appeared first in Asia among the Tartar tribes. In the 6th cen-tmry around Turkestan grew up a Turkish

empire, which was overthrown by another Turkish tribe, the Uigurs, the first Turks to possess a written language. They were driven westward by the Chinese, with whom they had been contending for centuries, and their kingdom in Central Asia was entirely overthrown by Genghis Khan (q. v.). But they had already established themselves in the west of Asia, where the possessions of the Seljuks, another tribe of Turks, reached from Persia to India between the loth and 12th centuries. The Ottoman empire was founded in the i4th century by Othman, and the present inhabiants of Turkey are called Osmanli or Ottoman Turks. The Turkomans ("like the Turks") are the descendants of the old Seljuks, and are found in Turkestan. The Ottoman Turks, found in the Turkish empire, are more like Europeans than the other Turkish tribes, which have the broad face, high cheekbones and yellow skin of the Mongolians. The different tribes speak nearly the same language, and usually are Mohammedans, though the Turks on the borders of China are Buddhists, and those of Siberia, Greek Christians. See SELJUKS and TURANIANS.

Turks and Cai'cos Islands, two groups of British islands, over 30 in all, southeast of the Bahamas and under the government of Jamaica. The largest, Grand Caicos, covers 112 square miles; and Grand Turk, 14 miles square, is the seat of government, in telegraphic communication with Jamaica and Bermuda, and has 1,883 inhabitants. The only important industry is salt-raking, about 1,800,000 bushels being exported annually. Sponge and fibre industries are also carried on. Population 5,287.

Tur'meric, a name given to the roots of a plant of the ginger family. The roots or root-stocks are yellow, marked with wrinkles, and a darker yellow or reddish brown inside, and when chewed make a yellow stain; they smell like ginger, and have a somewhat similar taste. They are used somewhat in dyeing, in coloring varnishes and in curry-powder and pickles. Paper colored by turmeric is extensively used by chemists as a test for alkalies and for boric acid.

Turn'er, Rt. Hon. Sir George, P. C., G. C. M. G., formerly premier and treasurer of Victoria and treasurer in the Barton (Australian commonwealth) cabinet, was born at Melbourne, Victoria, in 1851, and educated at Melbourne University. In 1887 he entered politics. He has held office in a number of administrations, including the ministership of customs, of defense and of health, and has been solicitor-general. He has been a member of the Australian National Federation Convention and chairman and president of the Federal Council.

Turner, Joseph Mallord William, an English painter, was born at London on April 23, 1775. His first art-work was