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TURGENEV

a battle at Sasbach, Turenne was viewing the preparations for the attack, when he was killed by a stray ball on July 27, 1675. He was buried by order of the king at St. Denis, the place of the royal sepulchers. His monument was injured during the Revolution, but was finally placed beside that of Napoleon in the Hotel des Invalides, in Paris. See Life by Cockayne.

Turgenev or Turgenieff (Mr-ge*'nyef), Ivan, a Russian writer, was born at Orel on Oct. 28 (= Nov. 9), 1818. After studying at Moscow, St. Petersburg and Berlin, he obtained a position in the department of the interior at St. Petersburg. On account of his liberal ideas he was banished for a period, but was finally allowed to return to Russia. His home, however, for the most part was at Paris and at Baden. Many of his works were written in French, and have been translated into English and German. Among his best known novels are Fathers and Sons, Liza, Smoke, Dimitri Rudin, Journal of a Useless Man and Virgin Soil. He died on Sept. 3, 1883.

Tur'gor (in plants), the state of a cell when its wall is stretched by pressure of the water within it. Every active cell is normally turgid if adequately supplied with water, because the absorption of water by the protoplasm goes on until the elastic resistance of the wall balances the force (osmotic pressure) which determines the entrance of the water. The turgor varies from time to time and in different plants, but ordinarily equals three to six atmospheres, and in special conditions may rise much higher.

Turgot (tiir'gd'), Anne Robert Jacques, a French statesman, was born at Paris, May 10, 1727. He was educated for the church, and was prior of the Sorbonne in 1749. In 1752 he studied law and became councilor in Parliament. He was given charge of the province of Limousin in 1761, where he introduced many reforms, as abolishing the method of mending the roads by the compulsory labor of the poor. He introduced the cultivation of the potato and other means of subsistence for the oeople. Under Louis XVI he was put in charge of the finances of the country, which were in a terrible state of disorder. His reforms included free trade in wheat in the interior of the kingdom, the doing away with the obligation to labor for the state and substituting a single tax on land for general taxes. He reduced the expenses of the government, and introduced exactness and faithfulness into the service. If his plans had been received with favor by the nobility and statesmen, France might have been spared the horrors of the Revolution. But the combination against him was so strong that the king yielded, and Turgot retired after 20 months of service. Among his writings are Reflections upon the Formation and Dis-

tribution of Riches and Usury. In writing on the American war, his views of the nature of colonies have since been generally adopted. His Latin inscription for the portrait of Franklin is celebrated: Eripuit coelo fulmen, sceptrumque tyrannis. (He snatched the thunderbolt from heaven, and the scepter from tyrants.) Turgot died at Paris, March 20, 1781. See Life by Say.

Turin (tu'rlri) or Torino, a city in northern Italy, once the capital of the kingdom, is 75 miles southwest of Milan and on the Po. It is one of the handsomest cities in Europe, famed for beautiful squares, fine bridges and pleasant promenades. Among the squares are Piazza San Carlo, with a statue of Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy; Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele, the finest square in Europe; and Piazza Castello, in which are the royal palace, with its fine library and armory, trie old palace of the dukes of Savoy, the military academy and the theater. There are a fine, five-arched bridge across the Po, begun by Napoleon with money obtained from the offerings at the cathedral and finished by the kings of Sardinia, and a beautiful single-arched one over the Dora. The cathedral, built in the 7th century, is the oldest church, and that of San Filippo the handsomest. The university, founded in 1404, has 68 teachers, 2,750 students and a large library, including that of Cavour, which was bequeathed to it. The Academy of Science has the finest Egyptian museum in Europe. The manufactures are woolen and silk goods, jewelry, paper, pottery, pianos and carriages. Turin was settled by the Taurini, a Ligurian tribe. Hannibal sacked the city after crossing the Alps. In 166 B. C. it became a Roman colony, and on the fall of the empire went to the Lombards. Charlemagne made it the residence of the duke of Susa; and in 1032 it became the possession of the house of Savoy. The French held it for 60 years from 1506 and in 1640, and in 1800 it was united to the French empire. In 1815 it was restored to Savoy, and was the capital of Sardinia until 1860 and of Italy until 1865. Population 371,000.

Turkestan (toor'kes-tdn'), (the country of the Turks), is a country in Central Asia, lying between the Russian dominions on the north and Persia and Afghanistan on the south. It is divided into western and eastern Turkestan by the table-land of Pamir (q. v.), called the Roof of the World, which is about 15,000 feet high. Western Turkestan, once called Independent Tar-tary, consists of the great plain of the Caspian and Aral Seas and the hilly districts on its eastern border, formed by the western branches of the Hindu Kush Mountains. Eastern Turkestan, also called Chinese Tar-tary, includes the country east of the tableland, reaching to the desert-plains of the Gobi. The Oxus, Jaxartes and Zerafshan