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TORTUGAS

1926

TOTAL ABSTINENCE

the painted and speckled turtles, which sometimes are incorrectly called tortoises. The so-called tortoise-shell comes from a

BOX-TORTOISE

salt-water turtle, called the hawksbill. See TERRAPIN and TURTLE.

Tortug'as. See DRY TORTUGAS.

Tor'ture, a means of extorting confession of guilt by inflicting severe pain. It was used at first on slaves, and with the Romans on those who were not Roman citizens. Paul protested against the use of it, saying: "Is it lawful to scourge a man that is a Roman uncondemned ?" Under the emperors the use of it became general, extended through Europe, and reached its severest form in the tribunals of the Inquisition. The scourge; the rack, which stretched the whole body, sometimes until the joints were dislocated; the boot, rings of iron around the legs with wedges driven in until the flesh was mashed to a jelly; and the thumb-screw were among the many hideous instruments used. Judicial torture in England was inflicted only by order of the sovereign, and the last use of it was in 1640. France abolished it in 1786; Russia in 1801; and Austria, Prussia and Saxony about the middle of the i8th century.

To'rus (in plants), the same as "receptacle." See FLOWER.

Toscanelli del Pozzo, surnamed Paul the Physician, was born in Florence, Italy, 1397, and died there in 1482. He distinguished himself as an astronomer and physician. For a number of years he had charge of the celebrated library founded at Florence by Nicolo Nicoli. He read the accounts of the travels of Marco Polo and met many travellers from foreign lands. These experiences, with his knowledge of astronomy, convinced him that a western route to the Indies was possible. He corresponded with the king of Portugal and with Columbus on the subject, and prepared maps to show the proper course for such a voyage. These papers were in possession of Columbus in 1492.

To'tal Ab'stinence or Tem'perance. The

abuse of intoxicating liquors early led to the formation of temperance societies to influence public opinion on the subject and help those who were • endeavoring to overcome the appetite for strong drink. The first temperance society in the United States was formed at Litchfield, Conn., in 1789 by 200 farmers who pledged themselves not to use liquors in carrying on their farm-work. Early in the igtn century the temperance movement became organized, and the churches, especially the Methodist and Presbyterian, were active in the work. The Massachusetts Temperance Society was formed in 1813, and the American Temperance Union in 1826. The early societies were temperance societies strictly, not tota] abstinence organizations. They did not oppose the use of wine, cider or malt liquors, a brewery being built in Boston by the temperance reformers. The first national temperance convention met in Philadelphia in 1833, and formed a national temperance union, with 23 state societies and over 7,000 other societies. "Total abstinence from all that intoxicates" was first insisted on in 1833 by the Massachusetts Society.

The Washingtqnian Temperance Society was formed by six reformed drunkards at Baltimore in 1840, and was very successful in its special work of reforming hard drinkers. The Sons of Temperance was another society whic1^ in 1850 numbered about 240,000 members. The Good Templars, another temperance order, founded in 1852, is a secret society with passwords, ' grips etc., with a membership of about 750,000. A remarkable movement in the temperance cause is what is known as the crusade, which began in Hillsboro and Washington Court House, p., in 1873. It was a crusade of women against saloons, and the weapons used were prayer, persuasion and persistence. The movement spread rapidly and was the means of closing many saloons, in some places all that were in operation. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union is the successor to this temperance crusade. It has organizations in every state and territory of the United" States, fifty other nations including Great Britain, Germany, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, Japan, China, Madagascar and South Africa.

Its work includes 35 departments. It has been active in distributing temperance literature, in making temperance study a part of the curriculum in the public schools, in the establishment of hoimes for girls and in securing laws forbidding the sale of tobacco to children. It is agitating for an eight-hour day, peace through arbitration, industrial education and social purity. Its efforts for constitutional prohibition and for total abstinence by individuals are best known. The badge is a