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tion” under which our manufactures should be secured against competition with those of other countries. This question has been a fruitful theme of discussion by statesmen and legislators from Washington’s administration to the present time, even to the extent of being made the leading issue in several presidential campaigns. See Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith; Principles of Political Economy by J. S. Mill; Clark’s Distribution of Wealth; and Hobson’s The Economic Distribution.

Polk (pōk), James Knox, eleventh president of the United States, was born in Mecklenburg County, N. C., Nov. 2, 1795. He was educated at the University of North Carolina, and after studying law was admitted to the bar at Columbia, Tenn., in 1820. Three years after this he was chosen a member of the legislature, and in 1825 was elected to Congress as a Democrat. In 1835 he was made speaker of the house of representatives, a position which he filled with credit and ability. In 1844 he was the Democratic candidate for the presidency against Henry Clay, and was elected by a popular majority of only 38,000 but by an electoral vote of 175 to 105. The principal feature of Polk’s administration was the Mexican War, by which the United States acquired Texas, California and New Mexico (then including Arizona). Texas was annexed just before Polk’s inauguration; and soon after he became president he sent General Taylor to occupy the disputed territory between the Nueces and Rio Grande, Mexico claiming that this territory never belonged to Texas. In March, 1846, Taylor advanced to the Rio Grande and built Fort Brown, opposite the Mexican port of Matamoras. General Arista, the Mexican commander, then crossed the Rio Grande to attack Taylor, but was defeated at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and forced to recross the river. War was at once declared by Congress against Mexico and was prosecuted with energy and vigor until the City of Mexico was occupied by General Scott in September, 1847. During Polk’s administration, by a compromise treaty with England, the northern boundary line of Oregon territory — now the state of Washington — was fixed at 49°. The low-tariff act of 1846 was a favorite measure of Polk’s, being passed in the senate by the casting vote of Vice-president Dallas. Other features of his administration were the admission of Wisconsin as a state in 1848; the adoption of the subtreasury system by which the funds of the government are kept in vaults in Washington instead of being deposited in banks; and the creation of the interior department, its secretary being added to the cabinet. On the expiring of Polk’s term he retired to his home, Nashville, Tenn., where he died, June 15, 1849.

Polk, Leon′idas, general in the Confederate army and bishop of the Protestant Episcopal church, was born at Raleigh, N. C., April 10, 1806. He graduated at West Point in 1827 and received a commission in the artillery, but resigned and studied for the ministry. In 1838 he was consecrated bishop of Arkansas and Indian Territory, with charge of the dioceses of Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana; but in 1841 he resigned all except the bishopric of Louisiana, which he held until his death, even when commanding a corps in the Confederate army. Soon after the outbreak of the Civil War Bishop Polk tendered his services to the Confederate government, and was appointed major-general by Jefferson Davis. He commanded an army-corps at Shiloh, and in October following was made lieutenant-general. At Chickamauga he commanded the right wing of Bragg’s army, and, being charged by that officer with disobedience of orders, was relieved of his command for a short time, but was afterward restored, and served under Gen. Joseph E. Johnston in Sherman’s Atlanta campaign. He was killed by a cannon-shot while reconnoitering on Pine Mountain, June 14, 1864.

Pol′len, the microspores of seed-plants. Pollen is developed within pollen-sacs, which occur on the anthers of stamens. Each pollen-grain is an asexual spore, consisting of a single cell, which has an outer heavy and more or less modified wall, known as the exine, and a delicate inner wall, known as the intine. Pollen-grains are often variously marked, sculptured and even winged by the modifications of the exine. Certain pollen-grains, as those of the mallows, are covered with conspicuous spiny points, and this family may be recognized by its pollen. Pollen has often been mistaken as the equivalent of a male cell, being spoken of as the male element. It should be distinctly understood that pollen grains are microspores and that microspores are asexual spores. When the pollen germinates, as other spores do, it produces a male gametophyte, as do all microspores. It is in connection with this new plantlet or male gametophyte that the sperms are developed.

Pol′lina′tion, the transfer of the pollen of plants from the stamen which produces it to the stigma which is prepared to receive it. Pollination is frequently confused with fertilization. Fertilization is the union of the male cell and egg, which may or may not follow pollination. In general this transfer of pollen is effected by one of two agents, the wind or in-

Image: JAMES K. POLK