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LOUIS XI

III7

LOUIS XVI

laws taking his name. He undertook a second time to go to the east as a crusader, but during this expedition he died from pestilence, near Tunis, Aug. 25, 1270. He was made a saint of the Roman church. See Life by Wallon.

Louis XI, oldest son of Charles VII, born at Bourges, July 3, 1423, from his boyhood was cruel, tyrannical and treacherous. He made unsuccessful efforts to wrest the throne from his father. On his accession in 1461 his severe measures against his vassals stirred them up against him. With them he was artful, yet treacherous. He succeeded in arousing the Swiss republic to take up arms against Charles the Bold, and from that time French kings employed Swiss mercenaries. In 1482, by treaty, Burgundy and Artois were handed over to France and Provence was annexed to the crown. He increased the number of parliaments and gave the middle classes a voice in state matters, in order to weaken his feudal vassals, and founded three universities. He died near Tours, Aug. 30, 1483, after suffering great misery for years from terror of death.

Louis XIII of France, was born at Fon-tainebleau on Sept. 27, 1601. When his father, Henry IV, was assassinated in May, 1610, he succeeded to the throne, but his mother, Marie dei Medici, was regent during his youth. The Huguenots rose against her alliances with the pope and Spain, but concluded a peace in 1614. When the king was declared of age, he confirmed the Edict of Nantes and summoned the states-general for the last time until the reign of Louis XVI. By some concessions to the Catholics a religious war was provoked, which ended in 1622. Under the guidance of his great minister, Richelieu, the weak king gradually increased the power of the monarchy at the expense of the Protestant nobles, ending in the overthrow of the Huguenots by the capture of La Rochelle in 1628. In the Thirty Years' War Louis sided with Gustavus Adolphus against Spain and Austria. His acquisition of Alsace and Roussillon was confirmed in the next reign. He died on May 14, 1643. See History of France by Yonge.

Louis XIV, surnamed Le Grand, was born on Sept. 16, 1638, and succeeded his father in 1643, m's mother becoming regent, with Mazarin as her minister. In 1660 Louis married Maria Theresa. Little was expected from the king, as his education had been neglected and his conduct was dissolute. But in 1661 he suddenly assumed the reins of government and ruled with rare energy. His mot, "I am the state," became famous, and was the principle of his government. His ministers, Colbert and Louvois, helped him to restore prosperity. To the territory of France he added Lorraine, part of the Spanish Netherlands and Strassburg, a

free German city. He fell under the con trol of Madame de Maintenon, who led him to severe measures against the Protestants By the revocation of the edict of Nantes more than half a million of the best citizens of France left it, carrying their skill and industry to other lands. The death of Charles II of Spain having taken place on Nov. i, 1700, it was found that Louis had obtained his signature to a will leaving his dominions to one of the grandsons of his sister, who had been Louis' queen. This plunged Europe into the war which ended with the Peace of Utrecht, 1713. He died on Sept. i, 1715. His reign is regarded as the Augustan age of French literature and art. See Louis XIV and his Court by Pardoe.

Louis XV, great-grandson of Louis XIV, was born in 1710 and succeeded to the throne in 1715. The duke of Orleans was regent during the king's minority. At the death of the regent Louis reigned personally, putting at the head of affairs Cardinal Fleury, who set his face against a warlike policy, but after his death France united with Prussia and won many victories. Louis fell under the influence of Madame de Pompadour, to whom he issued notes for enormous sums on the treasury. He formed an alliance with Austria, which ended in the defeat of France by Prussia. The king, when told of the ruin of the country and the discontent and misery of the people, replied that the monarchy would last as long as his life. By the treaty of Paris (1763) France lost Canada and Louisiana. He died in 1774. See Secret Memoirs of Madame de Pompadour by Beaujoint.

Louis XVI, born at Versailles, Aug. 23, 1754, was the grandson of Louis XV. In the midst of a corrupt court he grew up temperate, honest and moral. He inherited an empty treasury, an enormous debt and an exasperated people. Personally full of good will he failed to restrain his brothers and to resist the influence of his proud wife, Marie Antoinette, whom he married in 1770. Voltaire hailed some reforms of Louis' ministers "as the dawn of the age of reason." They were accepted by the king but were rejected by court, aristocracy, parliament and church. Yet Louis accomplished the remission of some odious taxes, the abolition of serfdom, the abolition of torture in courts of justice, a reduction of the expenses of the court and the foundation of institutions for the benefit o£ the working classes. The privileged classes defeated his proposals for reform and compelled Louis' great director-general, Necker, to resign, Necker's successor was forced to propose the same taxation of the privileged classes which Necker had proposed, and he, too, was compelled to fly. New assemblies were demanded, Necker was recalled, and by his advice the third estate was summoned. Necker did this to counteract the influence of nobility.